Agency

Conceptual Overview and Discussion

There are three main types of agency: (1) Individual agency: The most fundamental form of agency consists of individuals acting, whether at the micro scale (in private or in locales of co-presence) or at the macro scale (in extensive public activities). (2) Proxy agency: One agent acting on behalf of [Page 13]another is known as a proxy. Common examples of proxy agents are employees acting on behalf of employers, managers acting on behalf of the owners of a firm, or officials acting on behalf of a government. A situation in which a principal hires a proxy agent gives rise to what is called the principal-agent problem—a major subject for legal, political, and economic theory. Although nominally acting for the principal, proxy agents can act on their own behalf owing to the divergence of interests and the asymmetry of information between principal and agent. (3) Collective agency: When individuals collaborate they create collective entities; insofar as such entities engage in effectual activity, they become collective agencies. Among the numerous examples of collective agencies are firms, states, classes, and social movements. The looser a collectivity, the harder it is to attribute agency to it: A degree of coherence is needed in order to form intentions, make decisions, and act.

There are three main bases of human agency—that is, three key properties of human beings that give rise to agency: (1) Intentionality: Human beings are purposive or intentional. This is one source of their agency. Action comes in two varieties: On the one hand, action can be aimless, accidental, or unconscious; on the other hand, action can be purposive and goal oriented. In the latter, people seek out the good things they want in life. Only the latter sort of action involves agency. Lack of agency or the absence of agency is to be found when a person acts unintentionally. Accidental or unconscious conduct involves things that happen to us, rather than things that are done by us. Yet, intentionality is not sufficient to give rise to agency. Goals are not deeds. (2) Power: Human beings wield resources and capabilities. This is a second source of their agency. Since power is typically distributed in an uneven fashion, it follows that so too is agency. Some have greater agency than others. (3) Rationality: Human beings are rational. They use their intelligence to guide their actions. They calculate how to achieve their ends, and they think about what ends to pursue. This ability to augment action through reasoning accounts in part for the active rather than passive quality of human behavior. To act with effect, it is necessary for agents to reflect upon their circumstances and to monitor the ongoing consequences of their actions. Although not all people at all times have been highly purposive, powerful, or rational, enough have to impart agency into history and social life.

...