Apprenticeships

Cognitive Apprenticeship

The concept of cognitive apprenticeship characterizes teaching and learning cognitive skills in various subject areas, by designing learning environments that incorporate content, pedagogy, learning sequence, and the sociology of learning. A cognitive apprenticeship is viewed as a prototype for effective education because it simulates how learning more naturally occurs through coaching and practice, with a focus on valued work and an integration of academic and vocational instruction. Many educational researchers have looked at the learning benefits of the cognitive apprenticeship method, with particular interest in its embedded learning, the scaffolding of instruction, the modeling and use of social and physical contexts, and the promotion of higher-order thinking and problem-solving skills. In recent years, the apprenticeship concept has also been applied to hands-on learning in academic and research programs for youth and adults.

Apprenticeship Systems in the United States

Apprenticeship systems have long existed in several occupational sectors in the United States, specifically, metalworking, construction, and the trades. Typically, apprenticeship sponsors, including employers, associations, unions, and governmental agencies, pay most of the training costs, including apprentices' wages. Sponsors provide on-the-job learning and academic instruction using recognized industry standards and licensing requirements. In 2003, there were 480,000 apprentices enrolled in 29,326 apprenticeship programs across the nation. Further expansion of the adult apprenticeship system in the United States is hindered by difficulty in finding firms to sponsor apprentices and an inadequate infrastructure to support apprenticeships outside unionized trades. Over the past 20 years, several federal initiatives have attempted to expand apprenticeship opportunities nationwide in traditional partner industries such as construction and manufacturing, in new industries in health care and information technology, and in partnerships with U.S. military branches.

Hundreds of academic partnerships for apprenticeships exist with colleges that offer associate degrees, bachelor's degrees, and certifications. By the 1990s, 25 percent to 35 percent of two-year colleges provided the academic or general education portion of traditional apprenticeship programs, with a sponsor providing job-specific training at the work site, usually on a cyclical schedule. Most were in the established trades (e.g., machining, sheet metal working) and automotive, with some incorporating the unions in a three-way partnership. Students completing an apprenticeship program are certified and advance to journeyman status, as determined by the sponsoring agency and state.

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