Underlying Linguistic Proficiencies

In the 1980s, Canadian linguist James Cummins advanced the theory that persons who are learning a second language are not faced with a completely unmapped territory. They possess a common framework of language structures and functions that can be described as a common underlying proficiency drawn from their knowledge of one language to help them learn the second or additional language. The theory holds that there is an interdependence factor between languages: To the extent that instruction in the first or native language (LI) is effective in promoting proficiency in LI, transfer of this proficiency to another language (L2) will occur provided there is adequate exposure and motivation to learn L2.

On the basis of the interdependence hypothesis, the first and second languages have a common underlying proficiency (CUP), discussed in this entry. Although the surface features of any two languages (e.g., pronunciation, fluency) may be different, the underlying cognitive and academic proficiency skills are common across languages. Cummins represented this concept of bilingual proficiency as a “dual iceberg” in which CUP skills (e.g., semantic and functional meaning) underlie the surface-level language (e.g., pronunciation and vocabulary) differences of LI and L2. The CUP principle implies that linguistic exposure and experience in two languages can promote the cognitive academic skills underlying both languages. Although the theory is difficult to prove, it provides excellent support to the advocacy for bilingual education, especially with respect to the positive use of LI to learn L2. Common underlying proficiency is also linked to the cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) that Cummins believes should be the goal of high-quality bilingual education because this is the type of language that allows the transfer of academic skills (e.g., literacy development) from one language to another.

Bilingual or multilingual individuals who have meaningful exposure and experience with two languages in school or another environment develop CUP skills, which enable the development of cognitive and academic skills in both languages. With enough time and good instruction, the individuals' two languages become interdependent and come to exist within one central processing system. The development of CUP skills assists with transferring of cognitive, academic and linguistic competencies from the native language (LI) to another language.

The separate underlying proficiency (SUP) premise suggests that no such relationship exists between the first and other languages and that languages work independently in the central processing system. Bilingual individuals would require two separate components for language processing. The SUP theory has mostly not been supported within bilingual education or bilingualism research.

Within the bilingual proficiency framework, Cummins posited a distinction between basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). Language proficiency used in everyday communication or informal settings is defined as BICS. CALP was conceptualized as language proficiency needed for decontex-tualized academic situations, or the language skills [Page 866]needed in the classroom. The iceberg metaphor has been used to describe BICS (surface level) and CALP (deeper levels) in language proficiency. Cummins expanded the framework by explaining the range of contextual support and the degree of cognitive involvement required within a communication task along both of these continuums. Academic critiques notwithstanding, the connection between language proficiency of the CALP variety and academic achievement has been widely accepted by school personnel who work with culturally and linguistically diverse students in many different capacities.

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