Social Support in Old Age

Social Support Conceptualization and Research Findings

Social support, a seemingly straightforward construct, is actually quite complex and multidimensional in nature. An important overall distinction in assessing support is whether the support is perceived (subjective perception that support would be provided if needed) or enacted (the actual receipt of supportive behaviors). Perhaps the most commonly used support measures address its structure (e.g., network size) and function (e.g., affective or instrumental support). Support measures also vary by the type of provider both in terms of relationship type (kin, non-kin) and the unit (network or individual). Increasingly, support researchers are addressing additional topics, including the effects of support provision and negative support interactions on well-being. People are not just recipients of support, they are also providers of support, and support transactions are not always positive; they can also be negative. Overall, it is important to attend to the operationalization of support when examining particular research findings and conclusions.

In terms of the assessment of perceived or enacted support, the former is most commonly studied. Moreover, research findings show a positive impact of perceived support on well-being, compared with a neutral or negative effect of enacted support (Lakey & Lutz, 1996). Having a sense that members of one's network are there for help if needed can be very comforting and may have the added benefit of saying something positive about oneself. Yet having to use help, that is, actual support receipt, may make people uncomfortable and perhaps upset the balance of exchange among one's network members. The effect of enacted support may also vary in terms of the type of support that is measured.

In terms of function, affective support (sense of acceptance, being cared for, belonging) is perhaps the most widely used support variable and may actually be considered synonymous with support. Instrumental support (helping directly to assist in task completion) is another major support component. Instrumental support can be especially important when a person is in need of help to complete everyday activities (e.g., help with paperwork, cooking, or shopping). While much research has shown a positive association between support and well-being, this work has largely used affective support measures. Interestingly, research that has examined the effects of both affective and instrumental support in a disabled population found that it was affective, not instrumental, support that had a significant association with well-being (Reinhardt, 2001). Perhaps more emotional types of support are effective because they promote a sense of one's resiliency in the ability to deal with stressful situations. Alternately, obtaining instrumental support, although it may be sorely needed, may be associated with a sense of dependence, and it may accentuate the recipient's functional disability. Overall, while functional measures of support have been positively linked with well-being outcomes, research examining structural aspects of support, such as network size, do not consistently demonstrate significant associations with outcomes. Thus, it is not simply having a large number of supporters, but the type of support provided that is important.

...