Life Events

Characteristics of Life Events

The characteristics of life events are varied and tied to aspects such as their valence, timing, sequencing, predictability, controllability, and desirability (Brim & Ryff, 1980). For example, the timing of life events may be characterized as “on-time” or “off-time” relative to one's cohort or one's own expectations (Neugarten & Hagestead, 1976). “Off-time” events may occur earlier or later than expected or desired. While having one's first child in one's 20s or 30s is considered on-time and normative, having one's first child at 50 is less normative and may be considered off-time. Some events have short-term effects that wear off relatively quickly, and others may have long-term effects (e.g., parental divorce; Maier & Lachman, 2000). Adaptive coping strategies are important, especially as adults approach social and biological developmental deadlines for events (e.g., getting a job, having a child; Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Fleeson, 2001). Events that are predictable and controllable typically are less stressful because they can be anticipated and coping strategies can be prepared and resources mobilized in advance (Aldwin & Levenson, 2001).

Appraisal of Life Events

Reactions to and perceptions of life events have received much attention (e.g., Lazarus, 1999). The consequences of life events and whether or not an event is stressful can depend on a variety of factors, including objective components and subjective appraisal. Thus, some events may have positive effects, and others may lead to negative outcomes.

Many researchers believe that the effects of stressful events on negative affective/mood states depend more upon the cognitive response to those events than upon the events themselves (e.g., Lazarus, 1999). This may suggest that the subjective appraisal of an event is more salient to predicting reactions to the event than the objective nature of the event. Lazarus (1999) stated that whether an individual experiences distress as a result of a stressor depends upon his or her appraisal of the situation. In contrast to Lazarus, Pearlin and Turner (1987) argued that people experience distress as a result of exposure to the stressors themselves and individual characteristics (e.g., socioeconomic status, gender). If indicators of stressors are based on subjective perceptions, they can easily [Page 659]become entangled with and indistinguishable from the emotional stress the stressors are supposed to create (Pearlin & Turner, 1987).

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