Child Development across Cultures

Physical and Motor Development

The examination of cultural differences in physical and motor development has made a significant impact on the field of cross-cultural developmental psychology. Many of these processes were once thought to be essentially biological. However, in some cultures, mothers encourage infants to sit and walk earlier than in other cultures, and it is within these cultures that infants learn such skills the most rapidly (Rosenblith, 1992). It is not only the speed with which these skills develop but also the stages through which development proceeds that vary across cultures. There are African peoples among whom motor development is more rapid than in Western cultures, and Balinese infants progress through different stages as they advance toward walking (Bornstein, 1980).

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development is also affected by cultural differences. Berry investigated the effects of alternative parenting skills on the cognitive functioning of children and showed a link between child-rearing practices and cognitive style (Berry, Segall, & Kagitçibasi, 1997). In addition, studies show that some Asian populations have accelerated formal operational thought, and Dutch children tend to have advanced mathematical skills (Gardiner et al., 1998).

Perception

Cross-cultural studies of perception have identified more similarities than differences between cultures. An example is found in the ability to process language. Infants possess an innate ability to perceive distinctions in speech; however, experience and exposure to certain languages hinder the ability of adults to perceive distinctions not found within their native languages (Bornstein, 1980).

Language

The development of language has its foundation in culture. The language a child learns can affect the child's conceptualization of the world. For example, the Hananoo, from the Philippines, have 92 words for different types of “rice,” which is one of their staple foods. On the other hand, up-country Swahili makes no differentiation between “flying objects.” One group is learning to perceive and pay attention to differences within a category, and the other group is failing to make these distinctions.

Behavioral Differences

Gender roles, need for achievement, and moral judgment are among the major arenas of social behavioral differences studied by cross-cultural psychologists and anthropologists. While gender identities tend to be relatively stable through a wide variety of cultures, there are cultural differences that are strong enough to show that these identities are not purely biological. For example, Margaret Mead explored several societies in which differences from Western notions of gender roles were pervasive. One such society, the Arapesh, consisted of men and women who all tended toward Western notions of feminine in their parental style and other sexual aspects. Conversely, both sexes of the Mundugumor tended to express more aggression and violence, reflecting typically masculine characteristics. Finally, Mead found that the Tchambuli tended to reverse the gender roles common in Western cultures, with men being more sensitive and emotional and women acting as the dominant aggressors. The need for achievement is also culturally influenced. Broadly defined, this is the individual's motivation to seek responsibility and challenge and to pair this with an internal standard of achievement. Extensive research on the need for achievement has correlated it with [Page 244]child-rearing practices in a variety of cultures. Authoritarian families tend to elicit less need for achievement, whereas entrepreneurial societies tend to foster this characteristic. In addition, consistency has been found in the order in which children develop moral judgment. According to Kohlberg, children's judgment advances through three stages. The first stage is that of punishment versus reward, the second is based on expectation of duty, and the third is a more universal standard of contract or conscience. Although the progression seems unaltered, end points vary between cultures (Bornstein, 1980).

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