African American Youth Development, Cultural Influences

Race, Ethnicity, and Culture

Researchers studying ethnically diverse populations often use race as a factor in data analysis. The use of race in psychosocial research often rests on unproven assumptions of shared genetic heritage based on external physical characteristics, such as facial features, skin color, and hair texture (Thomas & Sillen, 1972). However, many social scientists advocate for the use of the more inclusive concepts of ethnicity and culture. Culture, the broader of the two concepts, is defined in terms of group ways of thinking and living, and shared knowledge, skills, values, expressive forms, social institutions, and behaviors. Ethnicity encompasses both race and culture and includes language, religion, history, beliefs, norms, behaviors, and institutions that members of a group share. This approach to understanding unique ethnic differences may be beneficial to Black populations due to the hetereogenity of this group.

Studies of ethnicity involving Black youth in the United States need to include examinations of immigration status. Although Blacks have historically constituted a smaller percentage of the immigrants entering the United States compared with Asians or Latinos, this pattern is changing. Population rates showed a 1,277% increase over a 40-year period in the number of foreign-born Blacks residing in the United States. Demographers project that by the year 2010, the population of first-generation (i.e., foreign-born) and secondgeneration (i.e., U.S.-born children to at least one foreign-born parent) Blacks will reach 4.3 million, which is 12% of the total U.S. Black population.

Many developmental outcomes may be affected by immigration status. For example, empirical evidence suggests that immigrant racial minorities remain in school longer and once they overcome initial language difficulties, achieve greater success than do nonimmigrant minorities. However, most of these studies focus [Page 56]on Hispanic and Asian children. Some researchers have argued that being Black and an immigrant is a double risk factor because this population may face the barriers of racism and xenophobia. Other researchers suggest that the social support and social networks among Black ethnic communities (e.g., Jamaican, Haitian) help Black immigrants overcome disadvantages.

Additional research is needed to delineate factors that contribute to differences in academic achievement among Black immigrant children compared with their African American counterparts. For example, Rong and Preissle (1998) report that Black immigrant children aged 6 to 16 years are more likely to be ahead of other children in their grade levels, go to school at an early age, stay in school, and make satisfactory academic progress.

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