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Urban Ecology

Urban ecology is the study of humans and non-human organisms in urban areas, their interaction with their surroundings, and their reactions to environmental change. Anthropologists use theories, principles, or methods developed by ecologists to study how past cities arose, how current cities develop and change, and the effects of urban environments on people.

Ecological Theories of Urbanization

Archaeologists often use ecological theory to explain how relationships between humans and their environment have evolved, leading to urbanization. These theories are based on Thomas Malthus' proposition that human population always tends to increase unless checked by some force. The British archaeologist V. Gordon Childe argued that the birth of agriculture led to surplus food and sedentism (people remaining in a fixed area). This allowed more people to specialize in crafts, arts, or political functions, and socioeconomic differences among people are more pronounced in ancient cities than in rural archaeological sites. In the 1950s, cultural evolutionists such as Leslie White used systems theory to argue that all cultures tend to become urban as they increase the energy they capture and use. Karl Wittfogel, Julian Steward,Marshall Sahlins, and Robert Carneiro portrayed urbanization as unique ecological adaptations to particular environments, such as the need for political organization to regulate agricultural irrigation in arid areas. Ecological explanations remain important, but currently are usually integrated with warfare, ideology, and individual agency as explanations for the emergence of cities.

Ecological concepts are also used to explain how contemporary cities grow and change. In the 1920s urban sociologists Robert E. Park and Ernest Burgess founded the “Chicago School” of theory by encouraging students to study cities as laboratories. They used ecological concepts to explain urban growth and change, proposing that cities are comprised of ecological niches arranged in concentric rings around a central core. These sociologists considered the city an ecosystem requiring energy to maintain segmented niches, which experienced residential succession much like patches of forest. Individual human expectations and aspirations depended on an inhabitant's location within these niches. The Chicago School's later focus on demographics and statistical analysis of census information was criticized for lack of attention to individuality. Their quantitative techniques continue to dominate urban planning and research.

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability

Cities produce pollution and their expansion reduces habitat for native species. Researchers are also interested in how these effects feed back to change cities. For example, rain in coastal cities washes nitrogen from lawns and city streets into rivers, and eventually the estuary, where it can change the structure of shellfish communities. This can negatively impact shell-fishing economies and threaten a region's sustainability. Archaeologists such as Charles L. Redman and Joseph Tainter argue that environmental deterioration often led to abandonment of urban areas in the past. In 1992 the Canadian ecologist William Rees introduced the concept of “ecological footprint” to describe the far-reaching environmental impacts of cities. Urban planners and activists interested in sustainable development attempt to quantify ecological footprints. It is also important to understand what people in cities “value.” The nascent field of ecological economics is an attempt to integrate concepts like ecological footprints with market-based analyses for decision making. Social ecologists such as Steven Kellert argue that concern about wildlife conservation is higher among urban residents, which suggests a positive environmental effect of urbanization.

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