Sociology

Theoretical Perspectives

Sociology is characterized by the use of broad theories to guide research and to provide an explanatory framework for data gathered through systematic observation. The major theoretical perspectives are briefly described below.

Functionalism. Associated with the earliest sociologists such as Comte and Durkheim, functionalism takes as its basic assumption that society works as a system, where each part contributes to the well-being and smooth operation of the entire group. Each part has a function that contributes to the stability of the system. Social solidarity rests on shared values as well as shared culture. Social problems are typically seen as a result of reduced social solidarity, often as a result of rapid social change. Social change may originate outside the social system; for example, the Industrial Revolution and the rapid urbanization that followed created disequilibrium in society, the aftershocks of which are still being felt today. Functionalists are also sometimes referred to as “structural functionalists” because they analyze how the parts of society, or structures, fit together and how each part contributes to the stability of the whole, its function.

Conflict Theory. A macrolevel perspective like functionalism, conflict theory focuses on inequality in society. It begins with the assumption that society is made up of groups that compete for scarce resources. Resources may be seen as financial, political, or social, such as prestige or respect. Privileged groups try to maintain their advantages, less privileged groups try to increase their resources. Conflict theory originated in the work of German social thinker Karl Marx (1818–1883), who observed and wrote about the conditions suffered by workers in the factories in the early years of industrialization. He developed a theory of class conflict, arguing that there is a fundamental conflict between those who own the means of production, the capitalists, and the workers, who only own their own labor and thus must work for wages.

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