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Confucianism

Confucianism is a Chinese system of thought that originated with the teachings of Kong Fuzi. Literally “Master Kong” and latinized as “Confucius,” Kong Fuzi is an honorific for Kong Qiu (alias Zhongni, 552–479BC), who served in minor official posts during his lifetime. Confucianism is philosophical as well as spiritual. Historically, its rise paralleled that of the Western philosophical tradition represented by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Since its ascent to the status of state orthodoxy during the Former Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 8),Confucianism has molded the spirit of Chinese civilization.

What is known as Confucianism actually grew out of contributions from both Confucius and his major followers, such as Mencius (ca.371–289 BC) and Xunzi (ca. 313–230 BC). The basic Confucian canon consists of two parts. One contains the “Four Books,” including the Analects, the Mencius, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean.The other part contains the “Five Classics,” including theBook of Changes, the Book of History, the Book of Odes, the Spring and Autumn Annals, and the Book of Rites. There is general consensus that the Analects is probably the only reliable source of teachings delivered verbatim by Confucius himself.

Philosophical Tradition

Confucian thought is humanistic and rational. It maintains that everyone has the mental and moral potential to fully realize themselves in the fulfillment of their social roles and that the world can be understood through the use of human reason alone. This is why Confucius sought to promote “education without class” and is remembered as the “greatest teacher of all time” in China. If Confucius implied only that human nature was good, Mencius took it a step further to declare that man was equipped with innate knowledge and ability to do good. In contrast to Mencius's Idealistic Confucianism, Xunzi adopted a position known as Realistic Confucianism, and he argued that humans were born selfish and asocial. Nevertheless, both believed in the perfectibility of all humans through education.

At the heart of the Confucian intellectual tradition is a social, political philosophy that centers on “government by virtue.” To govern is to correct. Confucius compared two different ways to achieve this end: government by regulations and punishments versus government by moral examples and persuasion. His conclusion was that there would be shameless evasions under the former, but shame and correctness under the latter. Government by virtue was one of benevolence. Three tenets figure large in its building: self-cultivation, rectification of names, and the Doctrine of the Mean.

Self-Cultivation

Benevolence, or ren, was central to Confucian morality, which also included such virtues as righteousness, loyalty, filial piety, fraternal love, devotion, courtesy, and so on. Self-cultivation involved engaging in an unwavering pursuit of virtues, practicing industry and hard work, and exercising control over desires and emotions. Asceticism was a necessary ingredient of self-cultivation, and not everyone could go through the arduous journey to complete moral perfection and become a junzi, or profound person. In Confucian political thought, it was the privileged responsibility of the profound person to assume a position of leadership and render public service to society. Behind the Confucian stress on self-cultivation was a moral idealism that identified the cultivation of virtues with ideal statesmanship. Not only did this moral idealism advocate a political elitism, but it also linked Confucianism to the state through the civil service examinations that were based on Confucian texts.

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