Computers and Humankind

Computers and Evolution

At first glance, the average person would be familiar with only the last 30 years of computer history. In fact, the origins of the computer, in the way of simple counting aids, date back at least2,000 years. The abacus was invented around the 4th century BC, in Babylonia (now Iraq). Another device called the Antikythera mechanism was used for registering and predicting the motion of the stars and planets around the 1st century BC. Wilhelm Schickard built the first mechanical calculator in 1623, but the device never made it past the prototype stage. This calculator could work with six digits and carry digits across columns.

First-generation computers (1939–1954) used vacuum tubes to compute. The simple vacuum tube had been developed by John Ambrose Fleming, in 1904. The vacuum tube was used in radios and other electronic devices throughout the 1940s and into the 1950s. Most computer developments during this time were used for military purposes. During World War II “the Colossus” (December1943) was designed in secret at Bletchley Park to decode German messages. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzor and Computer) was developed by Ballistics Research Laboratory, in Maryland, in 1945. This computer was used to assist in the preparation of firing tables for artillery. The UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) was developed in 1951, by Remington Rand. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer sold. The Census Bureau purchased the UNIVAC on June 14, 1951. It contained a magnetic storage system and tape drives and was so large it was housed in a garage-sized room. The UNIVAC contained 5,200 vacuum tubes and weighed about 29,000 pounds. The UNIVAC I, which was an upgrade of the original UNIVAC, was used to calculate and predict the winner in the 1952 presidential campaign. Interestingly, TV networks refused to trust UNIVAC I's prediction results.

Second-generation computers (1954–1959) used transistors rather than vacuum tubes. Dr. John Bardeen, Dr. Walter Brattain, and Dr. William Shockley developed the first transistor in December1947. Transistors were developed in an attempt to find a better amplifier and a replacement for mechanical relays. The vacuum tube, although it had been used for nearly 50 years, consumed lots of power, operated hot, and burned out rapidly. Transistors provided a new, more efficient method of computing. International Business Machines (IBM) dominated the early second-generation market. IBM,with Tom Watson Jr. as CEO, introduced the model 604 computer in1953. This computer used transistors. The 604 developed into the 608in 1957. This was the first solid-state computer sold on the commercial market. IBM had a number of other significant developments during the same time frame. They developed the 650Magnetic Drum Calculator, which used a magnetic drum memory rather than punched cards. IBM also developed the 701 scientific “Defense Calculator.” This series of computers dominated mainframe computers for the next decade. Although IBM dominated the second generation, several other companies developed computer systems. In 1956, Bendix sold a small business computer, the G-15A, for $45,000. This computer was designed by Harry Huskey.

Third-generation computers (1959–1971) were built with integrated circuits (IC). An IC is a chip made up of many transistors. Three companies played major roles in the development of third-generation computers. The first IC was patented by Jack Kilby, of Texas Instruments (TI), in 1959. Although IC development started in 1959, it wasn't until 1963 that a commercial IC hearing aid was sold. IBM again played a major role in the development of computers during the third generation. They produced SABRE, the first airline reservation tracking system for American Airlines. IBM also announced the System/360. This computer was an all-purpose mainframe computer, which used an 8-bit character word. Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced the first “mini-computer” in 1968. This was a smaller-sized version of normal computer systems of the day and was called the PDP-8. The “mini-computer” was named after the “mini-skirt” of the 1960s. Early computer applications were also developed during this time. In 1962, Ivan Sutherland demonstrated “Sketchpad,” which was installed on a mainframe computer. This program provided engineers the ability to make drawings on the computer using a light pen. Doug Engelbart demonstrated (1968) an early word processor. Toward the end of the third generation, the Department of Defense started development of Arpanet (the precursor of the Internet), and Intel Corp started producing large-scale integrated (LSI) circuits.

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