Coliseum

“The Roman People,” wrote the satirist Juvenal in the first few decades of the second century CE,“once used to rule…but now they wish for two things only: Bread and Games.” And the Roman people had been amply provided with both:the frumentationes (free distribution of grain to between 200,000 to 300,000 members of the plebs)had been going on since the beginning of the Republic, and magnificent buildings and sites such as the Coliseum and the Circus Maximus offered entertainment many times a year. The emperors supplied the grain, the games, and the impressive buildings, aware of the efficiency of these means of social control.

The Roman Coliseum was built in less than 10 years. Planning was begun in69 CE, after the death of Nero in 68, and finished in 80 CE, under the reign of Titus, one of the sons of the popular Emperor (Titus Flavius)Vespasianus, who died a year before its inauguration. The construction was paid for by the spoils of the Judaic war, which provided much gold and many captives, who were sold as slaves. The poet Martial, alive at the time, praised the monument and made clear that from its planning stages throughout its execution, the Coliseum was always meant to rival the other seven wonders of the world, such as the Pyramids or the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Coins were struck that carried its image. It was known as the “Flavian amphitheater” until the 8th century CE, when its current name gradually came into use. It was called “the colossus” after the giant 100-foot-tall statue of Nero that had been [Page 528]placed beside it, Nero's head having been replaced with the head of Apollo. The Coliseum was built on the site of Nero's Golden House, more precisely, on the site of his private lake. Nero had confiscated this land for his own use after the great fire of Rome in 64 CE, and by returning it to the people,Vespasianus gained enormous popularity.

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The inaugural festivities lasted 100 days and involved gladiatorial games and mock hunts (venationes), which called for tigers, elephants, lions, antelopes, cranes, and many other animals. In one day, 5,000 animals and men are said to have been killed. Some events were reenactments of myths: for instance, Orpheus, supposedly calming wild animals with his music, was torn limb from limb by a wild bear.

The normal course of events would be a pompa, or procession, led by the sponsor of the event, followed by the animals, gladiators, and criminals with placards around their necks announcing their crimes. The pompa gave spectators the opportunity to place bets on the competitors. Once in the arena, hunts and executions of criminals by wild animals would be first, followed during lunchtime by some more executions and some less bloody performances, for instance, clowns and jugglers, and then the main gladiator contests in the afternoon. The sponsor or the public would decide on the fate of the defeated gladiators. The dead would be carried out of the arena through a special gate by someone dressed up as the god of death (Pluto), or Charon, the ferryman of the underworld. The winner would receive a crown, a cash prize, and other gifts. Many gladiators had fans and were considered “stars,” in the modern sense of the word. Gladiators would specialize in different weapons and gear and sometimes would be (mis)matched against each other or against animals for greater excitement. Over time, expenses related to putting on shows rose so high that several laws were enacted in an attempt to keep costs down. A list from the 4th century CE indicates the maximum amounts that could be charged for imported animals, such as lions, ostriches, lionesses, leopards, deer, wild boars, and wild asses. Crocodiles, rhinoceroses, monkeys, big dogs, and hippopotamuses were also popular.

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