Lobbying

Lobbying is, in essence, the attempt to influence the official decisions of a public policymaker. More specifically, it is taken to refer to the direct and personal communication between a lobbyist and the [Page 869]policymaker. Several explanations exist for the origin of the term lobbying: most popularly, it is said to have arisen from the habit of those seeking favors to approach President Ulysses S. Grant as he relaxed in the lobby of the Willard Hotel near the White House. Grant did not become president, however, until 1869, by which time lobbying was in usage in the context of British politics, and thus it probably originates in the fact that members of Parliament can be met by constituents and others in the Central Lobby of the House of Commons.

One of the most enduring definitions of lobbying was offered in 1963 by Lester Milbraith, who posited that lobbying necessarily involved a communication from specialist personnel to a public official with the intent of influencing a policy decision. Milbraith's emphasis on specialist personnel (lobbyists) provides a clear differentiation between professionals acting for payment on behalf of a client or employer on the one hand, and ordinary citizens exercising their First Amendment right to speak to their elected officials to petition for the redress of grievances on the other hand. The U.S. Constitution makes a point of enshrining the freedoms of speech and of association, both of which are crucial not only to the development of interest groups but also to lobbyists who give practical expression to the exercising of those rights.

Lobbying has become a term of popular abuse, as the general reputation of lobbyists has fallen as a result of well-publicized scandals (such as the Jack Abramoff affair in 2005–2006). Many lobbyists now prefer to describe themselves as working in “public affairs.” And certainly, direct lobbying of policymakers is merely a small part of the work undertaken by most lobbyists.

Lobbying, though, is a feature of the policy-making process in every democratic system. Lobbyists commonly describe themselves as forming a bridge between government and the governed, across which information can flow in order to ensure that policy decisions are better informed and that people can interact with policymakers more frequently than through simply voting in general elections.

This should not imply, however, that lobbying is a wholly unrestricted activity. In particular, it is subject to both state and federal laws and regulations. Professional lobbyists, with some narrow exemptions, must register with Congress or state governments and must provide information on their activities and expenditures. While scandals erupt periodically, there is a measure of transparency in American lobbying that is not replicated in every political system.