Ecofeminism

Ecofeminism (or ecological feminism) is a particular branch of feminism that examines the connections between women and nature with an eye toward creating an anti-dualistic view of the earth. Coined by French feminist Francine d'Eaubonne in 1974, ecofeminism uses the basic feminist tenets of equality between genders, a revaluing of nonpatriarchal or nonlinear structures, and a view of the world that respects organic processes, holistic connections, and the merits of intuition and collaboration. To these notions, ecofeminism adds both a commitment to the environment and an awareness of the associations made between women and nature. Specifically, this philosophy emphasizes the ways both nature and women are treated—and ultimately oppressed—by patriarchal (or male-centered) society. To do so, ecofeminists examine the effect of gender categories as they are applied to women and nonhuman entities. Ecofeminism's primary aim is to show the ways in which social norms exert unjust dominance over women and nature. The philosophy also contends that these norms lead to an incomplete view of the world; thus, its practitioners advocate an alternative way of being that values the earth as sacred onto itself, recognizes our dependency on the natural world, and embraces all life as valuable.

The modern ecofeminist movement was born out of a series of conferences and workshops held in the United States during the late 1970s and early 1980s. There, a coalition of academic and professional women met to discuss the ways in which feminism and environmentalism might be combined to promote respect for women and the natural world. The fundamental belief motivating these early meetings was the notion that a long historical precedent of associating women with nature had led to the oppression of both. They noted that, since the dawn of early modern culture in the West, women and nature were often depicted as chaotic, irrational, and in need of control, while men were characterized as rational, ordered, and thus capable of directing the use and development of women and nature. Ecofeminists contend that this arrangement results in a hierarchical structure that grants power to men; it also allows for the exploitation of women and nature, particularly insofar as the two are associated with one another. Thus, early ecofeminists determined that solving the predicament of either constituency would require undoing the social status of both.

Early ecofeminist work consisted largely of first documenting historical connections between women and the environment, and then looking for ways to sever these connections. One of the founders of ecofeminism, a feminist theologian named Rosemary Ruether, insisted that all women must acknowledge and work to end the domination of nature if they were to work toward their own liberation. She urged women and environmentalists to work together to end patriarchal systems that privilege hierarchies, control, and unequal socioeconomic relations. Ruether's challenge was taken up by feminist scholars and activists, who began critiquing not only ecological theories that [Page 505]overlooked the effect of patriarchal systems but also feminist theories that did not interrogate the relationship between women and nature as well.

By the late 1980s, ecofeminism had grown out of its largely academic environment and had become a popular movement. Many scholars cite the feminist theorist Ynestra King as the cause of this popularization. In 1987, King wrote an article titled, “What Is Ecofeminism?” that appeared in The Nation. There, she challenged all Americans to consider the ways in which their belief systems allow for the exploitative use of the earth and the further oppression of women. With the help of King's article, the concept of ecofeminism grew both in support and philosophical scope.

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