Confucius (C. 551–479 Bc)

Confucius, whose real name was Kung fu-tzu, is the best known of all Chinese philosophers. Although the system that bears his name—Confucian society—has been officially discredited in China, the influence he had on Chinese society lasted well into modern times.

Confucius came to prominence during the Later Chou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC), also known as the Period of the Warring States. China broke apart into 8 to 12 states. It was a period of political disunity and chaos. Although this was a period of disorder, there was at the same time a flourishing of philosophical thought as people sought to understand what was [Page 388]causing the problems and what could be done to correct them.

Confucius came from a family of low aristocratic status. Confucius deduced that the problem with current society was that people, particularly the leaders, lacked virtue and morality. For more than 10 years, Confucius traveled the Chinese provinces seeking an official who would not only employ him but allow him to put his ideas into practice. Failing in his quest, Confucius returned to his home district where he began to teach.

Confucius never wrote down any of his teachings. Rather, these were collected by his students into a volume known as the Analects. In this work, Confucius outlines his plans for a civilized, well-functioning society. Confucius is not referred to by his name but by the title of “Master.”Much of the Analects are questions posed to Confucius, followed by his answers. Confucian philosophy is a humanistic philosophy;Confucius was concerned with current times rather than spirituality. This is not to say that he had no religious beliefs. While he sometimes invoked the nature of Heaven and spirits, his focus was on the present world.

Confucius argued that besides lacking virtue and morality, people needed to know their li, that is, the rights and rules of behavior according to one's status in family and society. In short, it was knowing how to behave at the proper moment. Confucius stressed education as a way to learn virtue, morality, and proper behavior. Young men would study history, philosophy, and literature because they presented examples of proper and improper behavior. To foster their inner harmony, they would also study poetry and music. On completing a Confucian education, the “graduates”would then pursue careers in either the government or education.

Followers of Confucius took these ideas and created the five cardinal relationships: (1) father/son, (2) ruler/subject, (3) husband/wife, (4) older brother/younger brother, and (5) friend/friend. This is not an egalitarian society, for the first four relationships are based on a Superior/Inferior relationship. One must defer to the other. The only relationship based on equality is that between friends.

When China was reunified, the Confucian model was adopted for society. Obtaining a government job depended on one of two methods: appointment by the emperor (which usually required family connections), or the civil service exam. To obtain a post and rise within the ranks, a rigorous examination system was used. Knowledge of Confucianism was paramount.

Confucius took ill and died at age 73. He was buried in Lu, which is along the River Sze. His importance carried on for centuries, although Confucian philosophy was discredited from time to time throughout Chinese history. With the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, culminating with the abdication of the emperor in February 1912, Confucianism was officially discredited as a state ideology. However, many of its tenets, such as the emphasis on social deference, still remain.

...