Anti-Nuclear Movement

The anti-nuclear movement is a social movement opposed to production of nuclear weapons and generation of electricity by nuclear power plants. It is often assumed that this perspective on the anti-nuclear movement has dominated since the early days of atomic power; however, the anti-nuclear movement has almost as long and contested a history as nuclear power itself. Today, the anti-nuclear movement is truly global in nature, exhibiting a range of social goals and ideology. The movement is rooted in early atomic energy research in Germany and the United States.

During the late 1930s and early 1940s, when the Nazi regime was attempting to build an atomic weapon, a liberal and internationalist attitude toward atomic power was prevalent. Atomic research was expensive and generally funded by the government and military. Early atomic scientists were focused primarily on scientific potential and advancement, largely unaware of either the potential dangers of radiation and atomic reactions or of the full potential for negative application of atomic power for military purposes. By the time the negative aspects of non-peaceful uses of atomic power were realized, the government and military controlled atomic energy. In 1945, when Los Alamos Laboratory scientists exploded the first plutonium bomb, scientists were becoming increasingly concerned about the destructive potential of atomic power.

Even at this early stage of atomic research, it was apparent that the technology was advancing faster than the understanding of the scientific phenomena involved. The explosive power of the first plutonium bomb was substantially higher than what had been predicted. A movement of scientists developed to try and prevent military control of atomic energy, resulting in the foundation of the Federation of American Scientists. This was led by physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, one of the fathers of atomic power research, director of the Manhattan Project, and a symbol of the ethical dilemma that scientists can face when their research interests and national interests conflict. The U.S. attack on Japan in 1945 was the beginning of a strong public anti-nuclear movement.

In late 1945, the Federation of American Scientists attempted to mandate civilian control of atomic power through the McMahon Act, but this effort was not successful. As the Cold War escalated, gaining increasing international and national attention, military power and national security became paramount. National security doctrines established during this time deemed that all nuclear power policy decisions in the United States would be controlled by the government and military. The rise of the United States to an atomic superpower and the anti-communism of the McCarthy era changed the perspective on nuclear energy from liberal scientific research to one where dissension against nuclear power was the equivalent of an act of treason. Scientists who were actively against military use of nuclear power were discredited, and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were tried and executed for espionage after communicating atomic energy secrets to the Soviet Union. This environment was the beginning of an era of government and nuclear secrecy that continues today, now enhanced by the need for protection against terrorists.

In the 1950s, increasing efforts were made to support international cooperation and sharing of nuclear materials through President Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace proposal to the United Nations. While this provided a level of control over nuclear research, it also led to nuclear weapons development in other countries. During this time, both government and private industry were developing the first commercial nuclear power plants, government research into applications of nuclear power research was continuing, and the environmental effects of radiation were being investigated. Critics of nuclear power were becoming increasingly vocal, expressing concerns about the testing of nuclear [Page 165]weapons in the atmosphere, radioactive fallout, and the potential for radiation to cause genetic mutations. The First World Conference Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs was held in Hiroshima in 1955.

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