Chapter 1

1. Bryan S. Turner. “Simmel, Rationalisation and the Sociology of Money.” Sociological Review 34(1986):95.

2. For more on what I have elsewhere termed “methodological relationism,” see George Ritzer and Pamela Gindoff. “Methodological Relationism: Lessons for and from Social Psychology.” Social Psychology Quarterly 55(1992): 128–140.

3. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 33.

4. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 15.

5. Georg Simmel. “Money in Modern Culture.” Theory, Culture and Society 8(1991):20.

6. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980.

7. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 53.

8. Francis Williams. The American Invasion. New York: Crown, 1962, p. 53. It is interesting to note that Williams was making this point when credit cards were of minuscule significance in comparison to their importance today.

9. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Federal Reserve Bulletin, vol. 80 no. 5, 1994. “Selected Measures,” pp. A30, A51.

10. Fred R. Bleakley. “Consumers Loading up on Debt Again, But Many View Trend as Positive Sign.” Wall Street Journal, March 30, 1994, pp. A2, A6.

[Page 198]11. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstracts of the United States: 1993 (113th ed.). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1993, p. 506.

12. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstracts of the United States: 1992 (112th ed.). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1992, p. 504.

13. Peter Conrad and Joseph Schneider. Deviance and Medicalization: From Badness to Sickness. St. Louis: Mosby, 1980.

14. Russell Ben-Ali. “Urge to Spend Money Can Lead to Ruin, Therapy.” Los Angeles Times, May 6, 1991, p. B5.

15. Joseph Nocera. A Piece of the Action: How the Middle Class Joined the Money Class. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994, p. 96.

16. Andree Brooks. “Lessons for Teen-Agers: Facts of Credit-Card Life.” New York Times, November 5, 1994, p. 40.

17. “Credit Cards Become Big Part of Campus Life.” New York Times, February 9, 1991, pp. 16, 48.

18. Albert Crenshaw. “A Crash Course in Credit.” Washington Post, November 7, 1993, p. H3.

19. Cecilia Cassidy. “Chaarrrge!: America's Card-Carrying Teens.” Washington Post, June 25, 1991, p. D5.

20. “Credit Card Wars on Campus.” Fortune, April 10, 1989, p. 18.

21. Albert Crenshaw. “A Crash Course in Credit.” Washington Post, November 7, 1993, p. H3.

22. Albert Crenshaw. “A Crash Course in Credit.” Washington Post, November 7, 1993, p. H3.

23. Barry Meier. “Credit Cards on the Rise in High Schools.” New York Times, September 5, 1992, p. 9; Andree Brooks. “Lessons for Teen-Agers: Facts of Credit-Card Life.” New York Times, November 5, 1994, p. 40.

24. Barry Meier. “Credit Cards on the Rise in High Schools.” New York Times, September 5, 1992, p. 9.

25. Barry Meier. “Credit Cards on the Rise in High Schools.” New York Times, September 5, 1992, p. 9.

26. George Ritzer. “The 1980s: Micro-Macro (and Agency-Structure) Integration in Sociological Theory,” in George Ritzer, Metatheorizing in Sociology. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1991, pp. 207–234; George Ritzer. “The Recent History and the Emerging Reality [Page 199]of American Sociological Theory: A Metatheoretical Interpretation.” Sociological Forum 6(1991): 269–287.

27. For an application of a micro-macro approach to the sociological analysis of money, see Wayne E. Baker and Jason B. Jimerson. “The Sociology of Money.” American Behavioral Scientist, July/August (1992):678–693.

28. For an overview of the sociological study of social problems, see George Ritzer. “Social Problems Theory,” in Craig Calhoun and George Ritzer (eds.), Introduction to Social Problems. New York: McGraw-Hill Primis, 1993.

29. Hans Gerth and C. Wright Mills. Character and Social Structure. New York: Harcourt Brace and World, 1953, p. xvi.

30. For a discussion of Gerth and Mills's Character and Social Structure in light of the recent movement toward more integrative theoretical perspectives, see George Ritzer. Toward an Integrated Sociological Paradigm: The Search for an Exemplar and an Image of the Subject Matter. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1981, pp. 193–198.

31. C. Wright Mills. The Sociological Imagination. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959.

32. Richard Munch and Neil Smelser. “Relating the Micro and Macro,” in Jeffrey C. Alexander et al. (eds.), The Micro-Macro Link. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987, pp. 356–387.

33. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 110.

34. Paul Baran and Paul Sweezy. Monopoly Capital: An Essay on the American Economic and Social Order. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1966.

35. Georg Simmel. The Philosophy of Money. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1907/1978. In fact, Simmel did have a few things to say about credit (see pp. 479–481).

36. For an explication of the way that the fast-food restaurant rationalized the way food is made and obtained, see George Ritzer. The McDonaldization of Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 1993.

37. Max Weber. Economy and Society (3 vols.). Totowa, NJ: Bedminster Press, 1968; Stephen Kalberg. “Max Weber's Types of Rationality: Cornerstones for the Analysis of Rationalization Processes in History.” American Journal of Sociology 85(1980): 1145–1179.

[Page 200]38. See also Hans Gerth and C. Wright Mills. Character and Social Structure. New York: Harcourt Brace and World, 1953.

39. Rolf Wiggershaus. The Frankfurt School: Its History, Theories, and Political Significance. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994.

40. Roland Robertson. Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. London: Sage, 1992; Mike Featherstone (ed.). Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity. London: Sage, 1990.

41. Richard Kuisel. The Seduction of the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.

42. Dr. Ernest Dichter, cited in Francis Williams. The American Invasion. New York: Crown, 1962, p. 60.

43. Viviana A. Zelizer. The Social Meaning of Money. New York: Basic Books, 1994; Kenneth O. Doyle (ed.), “The Meanings of Money.” American Behavioral Scientist, July/August (1992):637–840.

44. Robert A. Hendrickson. The Cashless Society. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1972.

45. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 212.

46. Joel Kurtzman. The Death of Money. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993, pp. 82–83.

47. Joseph Nocera. A Piece of the Action: How the Middle Class Joined the Money Class. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994, pp. 100–105.

48. James Sterngold. “Thrift Is Under Siege in Japan as Use of Credit Cards Soars.” New York Times, June 16, 1992, pp. A1, D9.

49. “1993—Banner Year.” Bankcard Update, March 1994, pp. 1, 12.

50. William Dunn. “Debit It! New Breed of Cards an Alternative to Cash, Checks, Credit.” Chicago Tribune, November 18, 1993, p. N1.

51. “Credit Card Issuer's Guide: 1995 Edition.” Credit Card News, August 15, 1994, p. 5; “The Big Squeeze.” The Economist, November 2, 1991, pp. 69–70; Adam Bryant. “Raising the Stakes in a War of Plastic.” New York Times, September 13, 1992, p. F13.

52. Peter Lucas. “Buy Now, Borrow Later.” Credit Card Management, April 1994: 74.

53. Credit Card News, May 15, 1994, p. 7; Jeffrey Kutler. “Uncertainty Emerges on Bank Card Industry Future.” American Banker, September 19, 1979, p. 1; “The Big Squeeze.” The Economist, November 2, 1991, pp. 69–70; Janice Castro. “Charge It Your Way.” Time, July 1, [Page 201]1991, pp. 50–51; “Plastic Profits Go Pop.” The Economist, September 12, 1992, p. 92.

54. Steve Lipin, Brian Coleman and Jeremy Mark. “Visa, American Express and MasterCard Vie in Overseas Strategies.” Wall Street Journal, February 15, 1994, p. A1.

55. Marguerite Smith and Jordan E. Goodman. “Betting on the Value of Regional Banks' Plastic Portfolios.” Money, January 1990, pp. 57–58.

56. Bill Saporito. “Melting Point in the Plastic War.” Forbes, May 20, 1991, p. 72.

57. Robert A. Hendrickson. The Cashless Society. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1972, p. 46.

58. Peter Berger. Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963, p. 41.

59. Robert A. Hendrickson. The Cashless Society. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1972, p. 45.

60. Lewis Mandell. Credit Card Use in the United States. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1972; Lewis Mandell. The Credit Card Industry: A History. Boston: Twayne, 1990; Thomas Russell. The Economics of Bank Credit Cards. New York: Praeger, 1975; Lawrence M. Ausubel. “The Failure of Competition in the Credit Card Market.” American Economic Review 81(1991):50–80.

61. One exception is sociologist Steven L. Nock who in his recent book, The Costs of Privacy: Surveillance and Reputation in America (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1993), has devoted some attention to credit cards as one means of surveillance necessary to establish reputations in our contemporary world of strangers.

Chapter 2

1. “Co-Branding Redefines an Industry.” Adweek L.P., October 18, 1993, p. S80.

2. James J. Flink. The Automobile Age. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988; Daniel Yergin. The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991.

3. Isabel Wilkerson. “For Shoppers, a Fast Flight to Paradise.” New York Times, December 20, 1993, p. D9.

4. Linda Punch. “The Jackpot in New Markets.” Credit Card Management, April 1991, p. 30.

[Page 202]5. This discussion draws heavily on Lewis Mandell. The Credit Card Industry: A History. Boston: Twayne, 1990.

6. Adam Bryant. “It Pays to Stick to Basics in Credit Cards.” New York Times, October 31, 1992, p. 35.

7. American Bankers Association. Bank Card Fact Book. Washington, DC: American Bankers Association, 1990, p. 2.

8. “The Big Squeeze.” The Economist, November 2, 1991, pp. 69–70.

9. Bill Saporito. “Melting Point in the Plastic War.” Forbes, May 20, 1991, p. 72.

10. Linda Punch. “The Knockdown Battle in Corporate Cards.” Credit Card Management, November 1992, pp. 37ff.

11. Adam Bryant. “Raising the Stakes in a War of Plastic.” New York Times, September 13, 1992, p. F13.

12. American Bankers Association. Bank Card Fact Book. Washington, DC: American Bankers Association, 1990, p. 19.

13. Joseph Nocera. A Piece of the Action: How the Middle Class Joined the Money Class. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994, p. 56.

14. Adam Bryant. “Raising the Stakes in a War of Plastic.” New York Times, September 13, 1992, p. F13.

15. Pat Widder. “Credit Cards Slipping From Banks' Grasp.” Chicago Tribune, March 3, 1991, p. B1.

16. Adam Bryant. “Raising the Stakes in a War of Plastic.” New York Times, September 13, 1992, p. F13.

17. Saul Hansell. “Dean Witter Gets Entry to MasterCard.” New York Times, November 23, 1993, pp. D1, D16.

18. Leah Nathans Spiro. “More Cards in the Deck.” Business Week, December 16, 1991, pp. 100ff.

19. Adam Bryant. “G.M.'s Bold Move Into Credit Cards.” New York Times, September 10, 1992, p. D5.

20. “CoBranding, Affinity Cards Remain Tools to Spur Use.” Card News, January 23, 1993, pp. 1–3.

21. Charles Kraul. “Co-Branded Cards Charge Full Speed Ahead.” Los Angeles Times, November 26, 1993, p. D1.

22. “How Cobranding Changed the Card Associations.” Credit Card News, July 15, 1993, p. 3.

23. G. Bruce Knecht. “American Express Embraces Co-Brands.” Wall Street Journal, February 17, 1994, p. B1.

[Page 203]24. John Waggoner. “A Credit to GM.” USA Today, October 8, 1992, p. 1B; Mickey Meece. “GE's Rewards Card Grows in Shadow of Giants.” American Banker, March 17, 1994, p. 14.

25. Adam Bryant. “Raising the Stakes in a War of Plastic.” New York Times, September 13, 1992, p. F13; Adam Bryant. “G.M.'s Bold Move Into Credit Cards.” New York Times, September 10, 1992, p. D5.

26. Cited in Albert Crenshaw. “Credit Cards in Combat.” Washington Post, July 11, 1991, p. A33.

27. Jon Friedman and John Meehan. House of Cards: Inside the Troubled Empire of American Express. New York: Putnam, 1992.

28. “Credit Card Issuer's Guide: 1995 Edition.” Credit Card News, August 15, 1994, p. 3; G. Bruce Knecht. “American Express Embraces Co-Brands.” Wall Street Journal, February 17, 1994, p. B1.

29. Janice Castro. “Charge It Your Way.” Time, July 1, 1991, p. 50.

30. Gerri Detweiler. The Ultimate Credit Handbook. New York: Plume, 1993.

31. Eric Gelman. “Feeding the Card Habit.” Newsweek, July 8, 1985, p. 52.

32. Mark Arend. “Card Profits: How Far Will They Slide?” ABA Banking Journal, September 1992, p. 82.

33. Jon Friedman and John Meehan. House of Cards: Inside the Troubled Empire of American Express. New York: Putnam, 1992, p. 110.

34. Joseph DiStefano. “Card Companies Try to Spur Holiday Spending.” Wilmington News Journal, November 26, 1993, p. B10.

35. Leonard Sloane. “Secured Credit Cards: Ask Before You Leap.” New York Times, March 16, 1991, pp. 13, 48.

36. “Once-Shunned Secured Cards Gain a Following.” Credit Card News, June 1, 1993, pp. 1–7.

37. Suzanne Wooley. “Plastic—For a Pretty Penny.” Business Week, May 18, 1992, p. 118.

38. Dona Wong and Vivien Kellerman. “No Credit History? No Problem With a Secured Card.” New York Times, January 8, 1994, p. 38.

39. “New Markets for Credit Cards: Seek and Ye Shall Find.” Card News, October 4, 1993, pp. 1–4; Linda Punch. “The Knockdown Battle in Corporate Cards.” Credit Card Management, November 1992, pp. 37ff.

[Page 204]40. “American Express Adds a New Card.” New York Times, January 13, 1994, p. D4.

41. Lauryn Franzoni. “Card Use Growing Rapidly for Industry Transactions.” American Banker, May 8, 1991, p. 12.

42. “GSA's Word of Advice on Buying: Plastic.” Washington Post, February 25, 1994, p. A19.

43. Peter Steinfels. “For Catholic Charities: A New Credit Card.” New York Times, February 4, 1989, p. 52; Debra Rowland. “Charge Card Gives Peace a Chance.” Chicago Tribune, March 3, 1991, p. B2.

44. Adam Bryant. “It Pays to Stick to Basics in Credit Cards.” New York Times, October 31, 1992, p. 35. However, some banks remain interested; see Credit Card News, vol. 4, no. 21, 1992 for a discussion of MBNAs continuing interest in affinity cards.

45. “Co-Branding, Affinity Cards Remain Tools to Spur Use.” Card News, January 25, 1993, pp. 1–3.

46. James Sterngold. “Thrift Is Under Siege in Japan as Use of Credit Cards Soars.” New York Times, June 16, 1992, pp. A1, D9.

47. Steven Lipin, Brian Coleman and Jeremy Mark. “Visa, American Express and MasterCard Vie in Overseas Strategies.” Wall Street Journal, February 15, 1994, p. A10.

48. Ferdinand Protzman. “Germans Sigh and Say, ‘Charge It.’” New York Times, July 13, 1991, p. 37.

49. “Credit Card Issuer's Guide: 1995 Edition.” Credit Card News, August 15, 1994, p. 3.

50. For more on why credit card companies have been tightening restrictions and backing away from these plans, see Leonard Wiener. “Backing Away From a Providential Perk.” U.S. News & World Report, June 1, 1992, p. 67; see also “Remember the One About the Ape and the Camcorder?” Consumer Reports, July 1992, pp. 432–433.

51. Margaret Mannix, Diane Duke, and Marc Silver. “Match That Price.” U.S. News & World Report, April 15, 1991, p. 74.

52. Janice Castro. “Charge It Your Way.” Time, July 1, 1991, pp. 50–51.

53. Joseph DiStefano. “Card Companies Try to Spur Holiday Spending.” Wilmington News Journal, November 26, 1993, p. B10.

54. “Nationsbank Card Features Savings Plan.” New York Times, January 7, 1993, p. D4.

55. Michael Quint. “Credit Card Issuers Seeking New Ways to Keep Business.” New York Times, April 20, 1992, p. C1.

[Page 205]56. Denise Gellene. “B of A Changing Its Credit Card Insurance Option.” Los Angeles Times, October 29, 1993, p. D3; “Card Issuers Test and Offer Fee-Based Enhancement Packages.” Bank Letter 17 (1993):1.

57. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Taking Credit for a Card-Using Boom.” Washington Post, October 17, 1993, pp. H1, H3.

58. George White. “More Americans Turning to Their Credit Cards to Purchase Groceries.” Los Angeles Times, August 8, 1992, p. D3.

59. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Giant Begins Accepting Credit and Debit Cards.” Washington Post, November 14, 1992, p. C1.

60. “Tapping the $4 Billion-a-Year Magazine Renewal Market.” Credit Card News, February 15, 1991; “A Taxing New Use for Credit Cards: Paying Your Income Taxes.” Credit Card News, July 15, 1991, p. 6; Credit Card News, August 1, 1992; “New Markets For Credit Cards: Seek and Ye Shall Find.” Card News, October 4, 1993, pp. 1–4.

61. Jeanne Ilda. “Mellon, Port Authority in Card Deal.” American Banker, July 25, 1991, p. 3; “The Cashless Garage: Parking Your Parking Charges on Plastic.” Credit Card News, April 1, 1991, p. 6; Linda Punch. “The Jackpot in New Markets.” Credit Card Management, April 1991, pp. 23–31; Jody K. Hancock. “Card Use for Fast, Small-Ticket Purchases.” American Banker, September 10, 1991, p. 8A; Credit Card News, January 15, 1991; John McManus and Scott Hume. “Arby's Takes Fast-Food Lead in Credit Cards.” Advertising Age, October 8, 1990, p. 20.

62. Jeanne Dugan Cooper. “Burger King Program in Oregon Allows Customers to Pay by Credit Card or Check.” American Banker, October 4, 1989, p. 10.

63. Calvin Sims. “Ride on Credit: Make It J.F.K. and Don't Spare the Plastic!” New York Times, June 8, 1991, pp. 25, 27.

64. Linda Punch. “Credit Cards and the Health Care Crisis.” Credit Card Management, July 1992, pp. 29ff.

65. “A New Way to Pay for Your Pearly Whites.” Changing Times, October 1990, p. 102.

66. Leah Nathans Spiro. “Behind the Bombshell From Amex.” Business Week, October 21, 1991, pp. 124–126.

67. Saul Hansell. “A Mighty Giant's Dressing-Down.” New York Times, May 17, 1993, p. D1.

68. “How the Gold Card's Identity Crisis Is Deepening.” Credit Card News, December 1, 1992, p. 1.

[Page 206]69. James K. Glassman. “American Express Charges Ahead With ‘Cause’ Marketing.” Washington Post, December 24, 1993, p. D10.

70. John Stewart. “Goodbye, Fat City.” Credit Card Management, March 1992, pp. 70ff.

71. Andree Brooks. “Plenty of New Offerings, but Read the Fine Print.” New York Times, May 15, 1993, p. 34.

72. Lawrence M. Ausubel. “The Failure of Competition in the Credit Card Market.” American Economic Review 81(1991):50–81.

73. John Stewart. “The New Frugality.” Credit Card Management, May 1992, pp. 28–29.

74. Peter Lucas. “Say So Long to Booming Balances.” Credit Card Management, April 1992, pp. 55ff.

75. “Issuers Consider a World Without Grace Periods.” Credit Card News, June 1, 1992; “Remember the One About the Ape and the Camcorder?” Consumer Reports, July 1992, pp. 432–433.

76. “The Pressure Builds to Make Convenience Users Pay.” Credit Card News, May 15, 1993, pp. 1–2.

77. American Bankers Association. Bank Card Fact Book. Washington, DC: American Bankers Association, 1990, p. 13.

78. American Bankers Association. Bank Card Fact Book. Washington, DC: American Bankers Association, 1990, p. 13.

79. Robert J. Klein. “Want Fair Treatment from Lenders? Know Your Rights.” Money, December 1988, pp. 183–184.

80. “Access by Plastic Increasing; Cards May Soon Tap Investment Accounts.” Houston Chronicle/Business, November 21, 1993, p. 3.

81. Based on Sandra Lowe. “Americard Banking Cashes In on Debit Card System.” San Antonio Business Journal 6 (1992):13.

82. “A History of Debit and Credit: How Plastic Cards Forever Changed Our Lives.” Chain Store Executive, September 1992, p. 22.

83. S. J. Diamond. “Debit Cards Pay Off—and Do It Really Fast.” Los Angeles Times, April 22, 1985, section 4, p. 1.

84. William F. Powers. “For More Customers, Electronic Money Is the Way to Pay.” Washington Post/Business, January 10, 1994, p. 7.

85. Credit Card Management: Card Industry Directory, 1994 Edition. New York: Faulkner and Gray, 1993, p. 39.

86. William F. Powers. “For More Customers, Electronic Money Is the Way to Pay.” Washington Post/Business, January 10, 1994, p. 7.

[Page 207]87. Credit Card Management: Card Industry Directory, 1994 Edition. New York: Faulkner and Gray, 1993.

88. “Multiple Application Cards Show Their Smarts.” Card News, December 28, 1992, pp. 3–5.

89. Credit Card Management: Card Industry Directory, 1994 Edition. New York: Faulkner and Gray, 1993, p. 39.

90. Albert G. Crenshaw. “Giant Begins Accepting Credit and Debit Cards.” Washington Post, November 14, 1992, p. C1.

91. American Bankers Association. Statistical Information on the Financial Services Industry (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Bankers Association, 1993, p. 197.

92. Janice Castro. “Charge It Your Way.” Time, July 1, 1991, p. 51.

93. American Bankers Association. Statistical Information on the Financial Services Industry (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Bankers Association, 1993, p. 197.

Chapter 3

1. Andrew Tobias. “Beware the Plastic Loan Shark.” Time, January 10, 1994, p. 20.

2. Georg Simmel. The Philosophy of Money. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1907/1978, p. 479.

3. Georg Simmel. The Philosophy of Money. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1907/1978, p. 194.

4. Linda Punch. “The Jackpot in New Markets.” Credit Card Management, April 1991, p. 29.

5. Gene Yasuda. “The Big Cards on Campus.” Orlando Sentinel, November 1, 1993, p. D1.

6. Janice Castro. “Charge It Your Way.” Time, July 1, 1991, p. 51.

7. American Bankers Association. Bank Card Fact Book. Washington, DC: American Bankers Association, 1990, p. 9.

8. Erik Lundegaard. “About Men: Card Sharks.” New York Times Magazine, May 22, 1994, p. 24.

9. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Rising Debit Card Use Heralds Change in Spending Habits.” Washington Post, September 18, 1991, p. D1.

10. Kathy M. Kristof. “Beware the Pitfalls of Using a Debit Card.” Los Angeles Times, July 5, 1991, p. D2.

[Page 208]11. Jane Bryant Quinn. “Automated Monthly Payments Offer Convenience and Savings.” Washington Post, October 13, 1991, p. H3.

12. “Credit Card Issuer's Guide: 1995 Edition.” Credit Card News, August 15, 1994, p. 4.

13. American Bankers Association. Statistical Information on the Financial Services Industry (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Bankers Association, 1993, p. 35.

14. Albert Crenshaw. “Battling the High Costs of Borrowing.” Washington Post, January 27, 1992, p. A5.

15. Dana Milbank. “Hooked on Plastic: Middle-Class Family Takes a Harsh Cure for Credit-Card Abuse.” Wall Street Journal, January 8, 1991, pp. A1, A11.

16. John Stewart. “Collections Feels the Heat.” Credit Card Management, October 1992, pp. 39ff; “Bankruptcy Baffles the Experts.” Credit Card Management, December 1993, p. 10; A. Charlene Sullivan. “Do Consumers Want More Debt?” Credit Card Management, April 1994, pp. 22–26.

17. Linda Punch. “The Land of Milk and Honey.” Credit Card Management, August 1994, p. 51.

18. The Wards' story is told in Dana Milbank. “Hooked on Plastic: Middle-Class Family Takes a Harsh Cure for Credit-Card Abuse.” Wall Street Journal, January 8, 1991, pp. A1, A11.

19. Eric K. Tyson. “Credit Crackdown: Control Your Spending Before It Controls You.” San Francisco Examiner, November 28, 1993, p. E1.

20. David E. Rosenbaum. “High Credit Card Rates: A Luxurious Necessity?” New York Times, December 24, 1991, p. 2.

21. Dennis Romero. “Piling Up Debt: Easy Credit Luring College Students.” Chicago Tribune, December 20, 1993, p. C1.

22. Mark Potts. “The Ghosts of Debt to Come.” Washington Post, January 1, 1993, p. F1.

23. Jan M. Rosen. “‘Maxed’ Credit Cards and Other Red Flags.” New York Times, December 26, 1992, p. 36.

24. Ronald J. Faber. “Money Changes Everything: Compulsive Buying from a Biopsychosocial Perspective.” American Behavioral Scientist, July/August (1992):809–819; Daniel Goleman. “A Constant Urge to Buy: Battling a Compulsion.” New York Times, July 7, 1991, p. C12.

25. Russell Ben-Ali. “Urge to Spend Money Can Lead to Ruin, Therapy.” Los Angeles Times, May 6, 1991, p. B5.

[Page 209]26. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 183.

27. Daniel Goleman. “A Constant Urge to Buy: Battling a Compulsion.” New York Times, July 7, 1991, p. C12.

28. “Shopping Addiction: Abused Substance Is Money.” New York Times, June 16, 1986, p. C11.

29. Eric K. Tyson. “Credit Crackdown: Control Your Spending Before It Controls You.” San Francisco Examiner, November 28, 1993, p. E1.

30. George White. “More Americans Turning to Their Credit Cards to Purchase Groceries.” Los Angeles Times, August 8, 1992, p. D3.

31. “Credit-Card War Moves Into High Gear.” U.S. News & World Report, March 5, 1979, p. 73.

32. A. Gary Shilling. “Plastic Bombs.” Forbes, July 22, 1991, p. 326.

33. Yvette D. Kantrow. “Banks Press Cardholders to Take Cash Advances.” American Banker, January 28, 1992, pp. 1, 6.

34. John Crudele. “Hey, Big Spenders: Living Beyond One's Means.” New York Magazine, February 20, 1989, p. 19.

35. “The Cost of Instant Cash.” Changing Times, June 30, 1990, p. 96.

36. Albert B. Crenshaw. “It Can Be Easy to Cut Credit Cards' Costs.” Washington Post, December 15, 1991, p. H3.

37. Karen De Witt. “Using Credit Cards, Students Learn a Hard Lesson.” New York Times, August 26, 1991, p. A17.

38. Jan M. Rosen. “ ‘Maxed’ Charge Cards and Other Red Flags.” New York Times, December 26, 1992, p. 36.

39. Jerrold Mundis. How to Get Out of Debt, Stay Out of Debt and Live Prosperously. Toronto: Bantam Books, 1988.

40. Jeanine Stein. “Is There Life After Credit?” Los Angeles Times, October 12, 1987, p. V1.

41. Jerrold Mundis. How to Get Out of Debt, Stay Out of Debt and Live Prosperously. Toronto: Bantam Books, 1988, pp. 118, 123, 124.

42. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 218.

43. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 219.

44. Marjorie Marks. “Stopping the Shopping Juggernaut.” Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1987, p. V1.

[Page 210]45. Kathy Kristof. “‘Disguised’ Interest on Credit Cards Is Decried.” Los Angeles Times, June 18, 1992, pp. D2, D3.

46. Denise Gellene. “Consumers Taking Hard Look at Credit Cards.” Los Angeles Times, November 20, 1991, p. D4.

47. Mary Beth Libbey. “Consumers Say They'll Switch, But Do They?” American Banker, September 10, 1991, p. 3A.

48. Peter Pae. “Credit Junkies: Many Keep on Paying High Rates on Cards, Through Bad Planning.” Wall Street Journal, December 26, 1991, pp. A1, A2.

49. Saul Hansell. “Consumers Finally Respond to High Credit Card Interest.” New York Times, March 29, 1993, p. D7.

50. Peter Pae. “Credit Junkies: Many Keep on Paying High Rates on Cards, Through Bad Planning.” Wall Street Journal, December 26, 1991, pp. A1, A2.

51. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Pressures on ‘Plastic.’” Washington Post/Business, April 18, 1993, p. H1.

52. Glenn Burkins. “Low-Interest Credit Cards Easy to Find, Hard to Get.” Washington Post, April 11, 1993, p. H5.

53. Albert Crenshaw. “Battling the High Costs of Borrowing.” Washington Post, January 27, 1992, p. A1.

54. Bill Sing. “Good Credit Counselor Can Be Godsend.” Los Angeles Times, September 24, 1988, pp. IV3–IV4.

55. “Easing Borrowers Off the Road to Bankruptcy.” ABA Banking Journal, February 1990, p. 42.

56. “Shopping Addiction: Abused Substance Is Money.” New York Times. June 16, 1986: C11; Carol Krucoff. “MONEY: A Club That Could Save You From Yourself.” Washington Post, March 25, 1980, p. C5; Margaret K. Webb. “Out of Control.” Washington Post, December 18, 1992, p. D5.

57. Carol Krucoff. “MONEY: A Club That Could Save You From Yourself.” Washington Post, March 25, 1980, p. C5.

58. Katy Butler. “Big Spenders Learn to Set Limits.” San Francisco Chronicle, September 17, 1991, p. A1.

59. Michael Schrage. “It's Time to Put a Transaction Tax on Credit Card Purchases.” Washington Post, October 12, 1990, p. F3.

60. “Easing Borrowers Off the Road to Bankruptcy.” ABA Banking Journal, February 1990, p. 42.

[Page 211]61. Marjorie Marks. “Stopping the Shopping Juggernaut.” Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1987, p. VI.

Chapter 4

1. Terry Galanoy. Charge it: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 193.

2. Georg Simmel. The Philosophy of Money. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1907/1978, p. 432.

3. Georg Simmel. “Money in Modern Culture.” Theory, Culture and Society 8(1991):29.

4. James William Coleman. “Crime and Money: Motivation and Opportunity in a Monetarized Economy.” American Behavioral Scientist, July/August (1992):835.

5. David R. Warwick. Reducing Crime by Eliminating Cash. San Francisco: National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 1993, pp. 8, 10.

6. Joel Lisker. “The Card Is Not in the Mail.” Credit Card Management, March 1993, pp. 90ff.

7. “Credit Card Issuer's Guide: 1995 Edition.” Credit Card News, August 15, 1994, p. 6.

8. Serge F. Kovaleski. “Credit Scam Targets Mailboxes.” Washington Post, December 2, 1993, p. A4.

9. Peter Pae. “Citicorp Plans to Put Customers' Pictures on Its Credit Cards.” Wall Street Journal, April 20, 1992, p. A1.

10. Gail DeGeorge. “When Knaves Play With Credit Cards.” Business Week, November 5, 1990, p. 163.

11. Serge F. Kovaleski. “Credit Scam Targets Mailboxes.” Washington Post, December 2, 1993, pp. A1, A4.

12. Credit Card News, February 1, 1990, p. 1.

13. Serge F. Kovaleski. “Credit Scam Targets Mailboxes.” Washington Post, December 2, 1993, pp. A1, A4.

14. “A Criminal Element Begins to Siphon Off Credit Card Gasoline Purchases.” Credit Card News, October 1, 1992, p. 8.

15. Ellen E. Schultz. “Plastic Explosives: Ways to Defuse Credit-Card Fraud.” Wall Street Journal, November 16, 1990, p. C1.

16. “A Nationwide Computer-Fraud Ring Is Broken Up.” New York Times, April 19, 1992, p. B3.

[Page 212]17. Serge F. Kovaleski. “Credit Scam Targets Mailboxes.” Washington Post, December 2, 1993, p. A4.

18. Bill Sing. “Protect Your Credit Cards From Retail Practices.” Los Angeles Times, April 8, 1990, p. D4.

19. Stephen J. Shaw. “The Credit Thieves.” Washington Post, November 9, 1992, p. D5.

20. Ellen E. Schultz. “Credit Card Crooks Devise New Scams.” Wall Street Journal, July 17, 1992, pp. C1, C11.

21. Bob Drogin. “Losing Millions in Asia's Notorious ‘Plastic Triangle.’” Los Angeles Times, June 23, 1992, pp. H1, H8.

22. “Credit Card Fraud Continues to Plague the Industry.” Card News, June 28, 1993, p. 4.

23. Julie Tamaki and Michael Connelly. “Computer Skills Aid ′90s Credit Card Scam.” Los Angeles Times, August 23, 1992, p. B5.

24. Julie Tamaki and Michael Connelly. “Computer Skills Aid ′90s Credit Card Scam.” Los Angeles Times, August 23, 1992, p. B5.

25. “Credit Card Fraud Continues to Plague the Industry.” Card News, June 28, 1993, p. 4.

26. Michael deCourcy Hinds. “The New-Fashioned Way to Steal Money: Fake Credit.” New York Times, December 31, 1988, p. 28.

27. Robert Hanley. “U.S. Writing 2,500 Possible Credit-Fraud Victims.” New York Times, December 9, 1993, pp. B1, B6.

28. Serge F. Kovaleski. “Credit Scam Targets Mailboxes.” Washington Post, December 2, 1993, pp. A1, A4.

29. “New Hope in the Battle Against Draft Laundering.” Credit Card News, January 15, 1992, p. 93.

30. Larry Schwartz and Pearl Sax. “Risk Management for Survival.” Direct Marketing, February 1991, pp. 37ff.

31. Richard B. Schmitt. “Visa, MasterCard Sue Telemarketers, Alleging Card Scam.” Wall Street Journal, April 16, 1991, pp. B2, B7.

32. Barry Meier. “Sharing Credit Card Numbers by Merchants Brings New Fears of Fraud.” New York Times, March 28, 1992, p. 50; Barry Meier. “$1.50 Worth of Help for $200, but No Credit.” New York Times, February 9, 1991, p. 48.

33. “Card Launderers Stay One Step Ahead of the Law.” Credit Card News, February 1, 1993, p. 6; “Telemarketing-Curbs Plan Gets Support.” Los Angeles Times, January 1, 1992, pp. D2, D3.

[Page 213]34. “Card Launderers Stay One Step Ahead of the Law.” Credit Card News, February 1, 1993, p. 6.

35. Jane Bryant Quinn. “Credit Card Protection and Other Bad Ideas.” Washington Post, April 28, 1991, p. H3.

36. Chris Woodyard. “Firm's Claim of ‘Credit Repair’ Sparks State Suit.” Los Angeles Times, August 1, 1991, p. D7.

37. Leonard Sloane. “Secured Credit Cards: Ask Before You Leap.” New York Times, March 16, 1991, p. 48.

38. Bill Sing. “Credit Repair Clinics Could Clean You Out.” Los Angeles Times/Business, July 8, 1989, p. 3.

39. Barton Crockett. “Banks Unlikely to Find a Bonanza in Debit Cards.” American Banker, September 2, 1992, pp. 1, 10; John Meehan. “Pushing Plastic Is Still One Juicy Game.” Business Week, September 21, 1992, pp. 76–78.

40. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Credit Card Rate ‘Spreads’ Keep Growing.” Washington Post, October 13, 1991, p. H3; Elgie Holstein. “The Hidden Costs of Credit Cards.” USA Today, November 1989, pp. 82–83.

41. John Meehan. “Pushing Plastic Is Still One Juicy Game.” Business Week, September 21, 1992, p. 76.

42. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Credit Card Rate ‘Spreads’ Keep Growing.” Washington Post, October 13, 1991, p. H3.

43. David R. Sands. “Senate Votes to Cap Credit Card Rates.” Washington Times, November 14, 1991, pp. C1, C10.

44. Elgie Holstein. “The Hidden Costs of Credit Cards.” USA Today, November 1989, p. 82.

45. Albert Crenshaw. “Complex Charges on Credit Cards Can Push Rates Higher, Study Says.” Washington Post, June 19, 1992, p. C4.

46. “Credit Card Users Misled By Banks, Study Charges.” Wall Street Journal, June 18, 1992, p. A5.

47. Albert Crenshaw. “Complex Charges on Credit Cards Can Push Rates Higher, Study Says.” Washington Post, June 19, 1992, pp. C1, C4.

48. Don Dunn. “When Credit-Card Issuers Say ‘Relax,’ Don't.” Business Week, January 13, 1992, p. 146.

49. Kathy Kristof. “‘Disguised’ Interest on Credit Cards Is Decried.” Los Angeles Times, June 18, 1992, pp. D2, D3.

[Page 214]50. Gerri Detweiler. The Ultimate Credit Handbook. New York: Plume, 1993, p. 67.

51. Credit Card News, February 1, 1990.

52. Leonard Sloane. “Low Interest Rates in Credit Card Offers Are Often Just Teasers.” New York Times, January 15, 1994, p. 35.

53. Suzanne Woolley. “Plastic—For a Pretty Penny.” Business Week, May 18, 1992, p. 118.

54. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 193.

55. Denise Gellene. “A Case of Phony Identity.” Los Angeles Times, August 26, 1992, p. A1.

56. Joel Lisker. “The Card Is Not in the Mail.” Credit Card Management, March 1993, pp. 90ff; Dwane Krumme. Bank Card Fraud. Washington, DC: American Bankers Association, 1988; Linda Punch. “A High-Tech Arsenal Against Fraud.” Credit Card Management, March 1993, pp. 20ff.

57. “Card Associations Play Pivotal Role in War on Fraud.” Card News, July 26, 1993, pp. 3–5.

58. Stuart Elliott. “Phone Promotion Miscue Raises Concerns of Fraud.” New York Times, April 7, 1994, pp. A1, D20.

59. “Rise in Fraud Prompts Call for New Credit Card ID.” Los Angeles Times, September 9, 1992, p. D2.

60. Yvette Kantrow. “Citibank Offers Photo ID on Cards.” American Banker, April 21, 1992, p. 7.

61. “Credit Card Issuers Find Technology Packs a Punch in Battle Against Fraud.” Card News, July 12, 1993, pp. 3–5.

62. “Card Associations Play Pivotal Role in War on Fraud.” Card News, July 26, 1993, pp. 3–5.

63. Jeffrey Kutler. “Is Banking Finally Ready for Smart Cards?” American Banker, July 7, 1992, p. 7.

64. William T. Neumann. “Busting Credit Card Crime Is Tough.” American Banker, September 18, 1989, pp. 26–27.

65. “The Card Companies to Scrub Laundering.” Credit Card News, June 1, 1993, p. 4.

66. William T. Neumann. “Busting Credit Card Crime Is Tough.” American Banker, September 18, 1989, pp. 26–27.

[Page 215]67. Michael deCourcy Hinds. “The New-Fashioned Way to Steal Money: Fake Credit.” New York Times, December 31, 1988, p. 28.

68. “A New Merchant-Fraud Fighter: Neural Networks.” Credit Card News, September 11, 1993, pp. 4–5.

69. Tony Robinson. “Firms Say Fight Against Credit-Card Fraud Is Paying Off.” Los Angeles Times, January 7, 1985, pp. IV1, IV2.

70. Jane Bryant Quinn. “Credit Card Protection and Other Bad Ideas.” Washington Post, April 28, 1991, p. H3.

71. David Warsh. “Credit Rate Cap Is One Way to Treat an Addiction.” Washington Post, November 27, 1991, p. C3.

72. Paul S. Nadler. “Politicians Create Credit Card Furor.” Bankers Monthly, February, 1992, p. 8.

73. John Waggoner. “Lower Rates and Demand Pinch Issuers.” USA Today, March 24, 1992, pp. 1B, 2B.

74. “Creditors May Lose Big If New Bill Passes.” Card News, May 17, 1993, p. 1.

Chapter 5

1. Georg Simmel. The Philosophy of Money. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1907/1978, p. 385.

2. “Call Boy Probe Chronology.” Washington Times, October 20, 1989, p. A10; “Washington Lobbyist Craig Spence.” Chicago Tribune, November 10, 1989, p. 10.

3. James Rule, Douglas McAdam, Linda Stearns, and David Uglow. The Politics of Privacy. New York: Elsevier, 1980.

4. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 18.

5. Stephen Kleege. “Privacy a Concern with Marketing Based on Card Data.” American Banker, March 14, 1994, p. 15.

6. John Stewart. “The Credit-Reporting Mess.” Credit Card Management, July 1991, pp. 55ff.

7. Stephen Kleege. “Privacy a Concern With Marketing Based on Card Data.” American Banker, March 14, 1994, p. 15.

8. Evan Schwartz. “Credit Bureaus: Consumers Are Stewing and Suing.” Business Week, July 29, 1991, pp. 69–70; “Your Credit Rating.” Consumer Reports, October, 1990, p. 648.

[Page 216]9. Gerri Detweiler. “Congress Takes Aim at Credit Reporting.” American Banker, September 10, 1991, p. 7A.

10. “Credit Bureaus Adopt Policy to Improve Accuracy.” Card News, May 31, 1993, p. 8.

11. Amy Dunkin. “Getting the Kinks Out of Your Credit Report.” Business Week, May 25, 1992, pp. 132–133; Robert A. Rosenblatt. “Better Consumer Guards in Credit Reports Urged.” Los Angeles Times, June 7, 1991, pp. D1, D14; “Your Credit Rating.” Consumer Reports, October 1990, p. 648.

12. S. J. Diamond. “Credit Bureaus' Tardy Rush to Aid Consumer.” Los Angeles Times, October 11, 1991, p. D12.

13. Evan I. Schwartz. “It's Time to Clean Up Credit Reporting.” Business Week, May 18, 1992, p. 52.

14. Michael G. Riley. “Sorry, Your Card Is No Good.” Time, April 9, 1990, p. 62.

15. Michael G. Riley. “Sorry, Your Card Is No Good.” Time, April 9, 1990, p. 62.

16. Leonard Sloane. “Credit Reports: The Overhaul Rolls On.” New York Times, January 4, 1992, p. B10.

17. Robert Naylor, Jr. “House May Tighten Credit Report Rules.” Los Angeles Times, September 24, 1991, p. D2.

18. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Checking the Credit Bureau Industry.” Washington Post, June 9, 1991, p. H3.

19. Amy Dunkin. “Getting the Kinks Out of Your Credit Report.” Business Week, May 25, 1992, p. 132.

20. “TRW to Offer Free Reports.” American Banker, January 2, 1992, p. 5.

21. Chris Woodyard. “Bill May Curb Credit Reporting Abuses.” Los Angeles Times, June 13, 1990, p. D6.

22. Jane Bryant Quinn. “Bank Balks at Disclosing Charities' Credit Card Cut.” Washington Post, December 8, 1991, p. H3.

23. Jane Bryant Quinn. “Bank Balks at Disclosing Charities' Credit Card Cut.” Washington Post, December 8, 1991, p. H3.

24. Jane Bryant Quinn. “Bank Balks at Disclosing Charities' Credit Card Cut.” Washington Post, December 8, 1991, p. H3.

25. William T. Tener. “Keeping a Computer's Secrets.” Los Angeles Times, December 5, 1988, p. IV6.

[Page 217]26. Daniel Mendel-Black and Evelyn Richard. “Peering Into Private Lives.” Washington Post, January 20, 1991, pp. H1, H6.

27. Daniel Mendel-Black and Evelyn Richard. “Peering Into Private Lives.” Washington Post, January 20, 1991, pp. H1, H6.

28. Daniel Mendel-Black and Evelyn Richard. “Peering Into Private Lives.” Washington Post, January 20, 1991, p. H1.

29. Michael W. Miller. “Citicorp Creates Controversy With Plan to Sell Data on Credit-Card Purchases.” Wall Street Journal, August 21, 1991, p. B7.

30. “The 10 Big Businesses That Have Your Numbers.” Money, March, 1992, p. 102.

31. “The 10 Big Businesses That Have Your Numbers.” Money, March, 1992, p. 102.

32. “The 10 Big Businesses That Have Your Numbers.” Money, March, 1992, p. 102.

33. Ellen Schultz. “It's Tough to Safeguard Financial Privacy.” Wall Street Journal, July 9, 1991, pp. C1, C14.

34. Bill Sing. “Protect Your Credit Cards from Retail Practices.” Los Angeles Times, April 8, 1990, p. B1.

35. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Protecting Credit Card Privacy.” Washington Post, October 22, 1989, p. H13.

36. Sam Fulwood III. “Data Crunchers: Marketing Boon or Threat to Privacy?” Los Angeles Times, May 19, 1991, p. D18.

37. Jeffrey Rothfeder. Privacy for Sale: How Computerization Has Made Everyone's Life an Open Secret. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.

38. “Credit Report Cases Settled.” New York Times, October 10, 1991, p. A1.

39. Kenneth N. Gilpin. “Three Credit-Data Concerns Settle Charges.” New York Times, August 19, 1992, p. D4.

40. Jeffrey Rothfeder. Privacy for Sale: How Computerization Has Made Everyone's Life an Open Secret. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.

41. Michael Isikoff. “Theft of U.S. Data Seen as Growing Threat.” Washington Post, December 28, 1991, pp. A1, A4.

42. Leonard Sloane. “Credit Bureaus Draw Fire for Misuse of Data.” New York Times, June 22, 1991, p. 48.

43. Jeffrey Kutler. “Is Banking Finally Ready for Smart Cards?” American Banker, July 7, 1992, pp. 1, 7.

[Page 218]44. Karen Timmons. “Study Finds Credit Report Errors.” Los Angeles Times, April 30, 1991, p. D9F.

45. Sam Fulwood III. “Data Crunchers: Marketing Boon or Threat to Privacy?” Los Angeles Times, May 19, 1991, p. D18.

46. Dana Priest. “How Direct Mailers Get New Addresses.” Washington Post, May 15, 1992, p. A23.

47. Saul Hansell. “Getting to Know You.” Institutional Investor, June, 1991, p. 72.

48. Saul Hansell. “Getting to Know You.” Institutional Investor, June, 1991, p. 73.

49. Don G. Campbell. “Those ‘Pre-Approved’ Credit Card Come-Ons.” Los Angeles Times, June 7, 1989, p. V3.

50. Walecia Konrad and Zachary Schiller. “Credit Reports—With a Smile.” Business Week, October 21, 1991, pp. 100, 102; Kathy M. Kristof. “Equifax Agrees to Reforms in Credit Reports.” Los Angeles Times, July 1, 1992, pp. D1, D5.

51. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Credit Card Holders to Be Warned of Lists.” Washington Post, May 14, 1992, pp. D11, D14; For a lampooning of American Express on this revelation, see Art Buchwald. “Credit Card Sharks.” Washington Post, June 25, 1992, p. C1.

52. S. J. Diamond. “Credit Bureaus' Tardy Rush to Aid Consumer.” Los Angeles Times, October 11, 1991, p. D12.

53. Stephen Kleege. “Privacy a Concern With Marketing Based on Card Data.” American Banker, March 14, 1994, p. 15.

54. John Markoff. “More Threats to Privacy Seen as Computer Links Broaden.” New York Times, June 1, 1988, pp. A1, C1.

55. Leonard Sloane. “Credit Reports: The Overhaul Rolls On.” New York Times, January 4, 1992, p. B10.

56. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Credit Card Holders to be Warned of Lists.” Washington Post, May 14, 1992, p. D14.

57. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Credit Card Holders to be Warned of Lists.” Washington Post, May 14, 1992, p. D14.

58. Sam Fulwood III. “Data Crunchers: Marketing Boon or Threat to Privacy?” Los Angeles Times, May 19, 1991, p. D18.

59. David F. Linowes. “The Privacy Crisis.” Newsweek, June 26, 1978, p. 19.

60. Richard Lacayo. “Nowhere to Hide.” Time, November 11, 1991, p. 36.

[Page 219]61. “Your Credit Report.” Money, September, 1984, p. 124.

62. Jeffrey Rothfeder. Privacy for Sale: How Computerization Has Made Everyone's Life an Open Secret. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992, p. 30.

63. Chris Woodyard. “Losing Faith in Credit Files.” Los Angeles Times, July 22, 1991, pp. A1, A16.

64. “One-Stop Shopping for Credit Reports.” Consumer Reports, December, 1992, p. 745.

65. Evan Schwartz. “Credit Bureaus: Consumers Are Stewing and Suing.” Business Week, July 29, 1991, pp. 69–70; Walecia Konrad and Zachary Schiller. “Credit Reports—With a Smile.” Business Week, October 21, 1991, pp. 100, 102.

66. Chris Woodyard. “Losing Faith in Credit Files.” Los Angeles Times, July 22, 1991, p. A16.

67. Leonard Sloane. “Unraveling of Measure to Revamp Consumer-Credit Reporting.” New York Times, October 17, 1992, p. 34.

68. “Credit Bureaus Adopt Policy to Improve Accuracy.” Card News, May 31, 1993, p. 8.

69. “The 10 Big Businesses That Have Your Numbers.” Money, March, 1992, p. 102.

70. William T. Tener. “Keeping a Computer's Secrets.” Los Angeles Times, December 5, 1988, p. IV6.

71. “Credit Bureaus Adopt Policy to Improve Accuracy.” Card News, May 31, 1993, p. 8.

72. Jeffrey Rothfeder. “What Happened to Privacy?” New York Times, April 13, 1993, p. A21.

Chapter 6

1. Lewis Mandell. The Credit Card Industry: A History. Boston: Twayne, 1990, p. 11.

2. George Ritzer. The McDonaldization of Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 1993, pp. 31–32.

3. Lewis Mandell. The Credit Card Industry: A History. Boston: Twayne, 1990, p. 11.

4. Jon Friedman and John Meehan. House of Cards: Inside the Troubled Empire of American Express. New York: Putnam, 1992.

[Page 220]5. Jon Friedman and John Meehan. House of Cards: Inside the Troubled Empire of American Express. New York: Putnam, p. 110.

6. Debra Whitefield. “Money Talk: Credit Vendors Target the Colleges.” Los Angeles Times, May 21, 1987, p. IV3; Barry Meier. “Credit Cards on the Rise in High Schools.” New York Times, September 5, 1992, p. 9.

7. American Express advertisement, New York Times, November 23, 1993, p. A17.

8. “American Express Tries Its Hand at a Cause-Related Campaign.” Credit Card News, November 1, 1993, p. 7.

9. James K. Glassman. “American Express Charges Ahead With ‘Cause’ Marketing.” Washington Post, December 24, 1993, pp. D9–D10.

10. For an overview of Weber's theory of rationalization, see Stephen Kalberg. “Max Weber's Types of Rationality: Cornerstones for the Analysis of Rationalization Processes in History.” American Journal of Sociology 85(1980): 1145–1179. See also Bryan S. Turner. “Simmel, Rationalisation and the Sociology of Money.” Sociological Review 34(1986):93–114.

11. For a similar delineation, see Arnold Eisen. “The Meanings and Confusions of Weberian ‘Rationality.’” British Journal of Sociology 29(1978):57–70.

12. I would like to thank one of my students, Michael Saks, for this point.

13. Kenneth R. Varney. “Automated Credit Scoring Screens Loan Applicants.” Washington Post, January 15, 1994, pp. E1, E13.

14. Saul Hansell. “Into Banking's Future, Electronically.” New York Times, March 31, 1994, pp. D1, D13.

15. Saul Hansell. “Into Banking's Future, Electronically.” New York Times, March 31, 1994, p. D13.

16. Georg Simmel. The Philosophy of Money. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1907/1978, p. 256.

17. Christopher S. Rupkey, “The ‘Have It All Now’ Generation.” New York Times, May 13, 1979, p. 26.

18. Albert G. Crenshaw. “Americans Putting Brakes on Borrowing.” Washington Post, March 8, 1991, pp. A1, A14.

19. Yvette Kantrow. “Fewer Paying Off Card Balances, ABA Survey Finds.” American Banker, September 19, 1989, pp. 1, 22.

[Page 221]20. Walter L. Updegrave. “How Lenders Size You Up.” Money, April 1987, pp. 145ff.

21. Walter L. Updegrave. “How Lenders Size You Up.” Money, April 1987, p. 146.

22. Walter L. Updegrave. “How Lenders Size You Up.” Money, April 1987, p. 147.

23. Jube Shiver, Jr. “Scoring System for Loan Seekers Stirs Debate.” Los Angeles Times, October 30, 1988, p. IV5.

24. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Keeping Tabs on Card Holders.” Washington Post, January 20, 1991, p. H4.

25. Albert B. Crenshaw. “Keeping Tabs on Card Holders.” Washington Post, January 20, 1991, p. H4.

26. Gerri Detweiler. The Ultimate Credit Handbook. New York: Plume, 1993.

27. “Evaluating the Payments: More Is Better.” Chain Store Executive, September 1992, p. 28.

28. Michael Quint. “D'Agostino to Accept Debit Cards for Purchases.” New York Times, May 19, 1990, p. 43.

29. Roger L. Pierce. “Seeking New Opportunities in Tomorrow's Payment-Systems World.” American Banker, July 5, 1990, p. 11A.

30. Stephanie Strom. “Holiday Shoppers Are Whipping Out the Plastic.” New York Times, December 18, 1993, p. 45.

31. Robin Leidner. Fast Food, Fast Talk: Service Work and the Routinization of Everyday Life. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.

32. “EFT Experts Look Ahead With Costs on Their Minds.” American Banker, May 20, 1991, p. 22A.

33. Beth Piskora and Jeffrey Kutler. “ATM, Debit Cards and Home Banking: Finally, Many Bank Customers Seem to Be Ready for the Future.” American Banker, September 27, 1993, p. 1A.

34. “Road to Cashlessness Paved With Plastic.” Los Angeles Times, December 20, 1993, p. C1.

35. Gerri Detweiler. The Ultimate Credit Handbook. New York: Plume, 1993, pp. 10, 39. Italics added.

36. “Hello, Central, Get Me 180055516960348583693941638590504887659876.” Consumer Reports, August 1992, p. 7.

37. Adam Bryant. “It Pays to Stick to Basics in Credit Cards.” New York Times, October 31, 1992, p. 35.

[Page 222]38. Personal communication from Gerri Detweiler, former executive director of Bankcard Holders of America.

39. Lewis Mandell. The Credit Card Industry: A History. Boston: Twayne, p. 79.

40. For a discussion of the advantages of another key element of the rationalization process, the fast-food restaurant, see George Ritzer. The McDonaldization of Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, pp. 14–15.

41. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980. In fact, Dee Ward Hock, the person responsible for the creation of Visa, actually envisioned an all-purpose card like Lifebank. (See Joseph Nocera. A Piece of the Action: How the Middle Class Joined the Money Class. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994, p. 307.)

42. Terry Galanoy. Charge It: Inside the Credit Card Conspiracy. New York: Putnam, 1980, p. 215.

43. I would like to thank Meghan S. Lee for making this point.

44. Gerri Detweiler. The Ultimate Credit Handbook. New York: Plume, 1993, p. 227.

Chapter 7

1. David Rieff. “The Culture That Conquered the World.” Washington Post, January 2, 1994, pp. C1–C4.

2. Stanley Lebergott. Pursuing Happiness: American Consumers in the Twentieth Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993; Richard W. Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (eds.), The Culture of Consumption. New York: Pantheon, 1983.

3. Francis Williams. The American Invasion. New York: Crown, 1962, p. 63.

4. Steve Lipin, Brian Coleman, and Jeremy Mark. “Visa, American Express and MasterCard Vie in Overseas Strategies.” Wall Street Journal, February 15, 1994, p. A10.

5. “Associations Explore International Waters for Cardholders.” Card News, November 29, 1993, p. 6.

6. Credit Card News, August 15, 1993, p. 5.

7. Steve Lipin, Brian Coleman, and Jeremy Mark. “Visa, American Express and MasterCard Vie in Overseas Strategies.” Wall Street Journal, February 15, 1994, p. A1.

[Page 223]8. “Credit Card Issuer's Guide: 1995 Edition.” Credit Card News, August 15, 1994, p. 3.

9. Credit Card News, August 1993, p. 3; Richard Rolfe. “Europe's Grand Prix in Cards.” Credit Card Management, August 1994, pp. 57–62.

10. “Associations Explore International Waters for Cardholders.” Card News, November 29, 1993, p. 6.

11. “Credit Cards Deny Liability Overseas.” Sunday Times, November 21, 1993, p. 1.

12. Rob Wells. “Japan to Enter Credit Card Market in U.S.” Washington Post, March 6, 1994, p. H14.

13. “Firm Seeks Use Abroad of Yuan Credit Card.” South China Morning Post, October 25, 1993, p. 2.

14. Jeffrey Kutler. “Visa Seals Debit Strategy by Purchasing Plus.” American Banker, November 2, 1993, p. 15.

15. Roland Robertson. Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. London: Sage, 1992.

16. Mike Featherstone. “Global Culture: An Introduction,” in Mike Featherstone (ed.), Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity. London: Sage, 1990, p. 1.

17. Arjun Appadurai. “Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy,” in Mike Featherstone (ed.), Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity. London: Sage, 1990, p. 298.

18. See Georges Duhamel. America the Menace: Scenes from the Life of the Future. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931; Francis Williams. The American Invasion. New York: Crown, 1962; Edward A. McCreary. The Americanization of Europe: The Impact of Americans and American Business on the Uncommon Market. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1964; J.-J. Servan-Schreiber. The American Challenge. New York: Atheneum, 1968; Peter Duignan and Lewis Gann. The Rebirth of the West: The Americanization of the Democratic World. London: Blackwell, 1992.

19. Georg Simmel. “Money in Modern Culture.” Theory, Culture and Society 8(1991):27.

20. Georges Duhamel. America the Menace: Scenes from the Life of the Future. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931, p. 215.

21. J.-J. Servan-Schreiber. The American Challenge. New York: Atheneum, 1968, p. 3.

22. Francis Williams. The American Invasion. New York: Crown, 1962, npi.

[Page 224]23. Francis Williams. The American Invasion. New York: Crown, 1962, npi.

24. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 4.

25. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 3.

26. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 10.

27. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 11.

28. For a discussion of Ford's assembly line as such a precursor, see George Ritzer. The McDonaldization of Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 1993, pp. 25–27.

29. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, pp. x, 4.

30. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 4.

31. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 36.

32. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 11.

33. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 13.

34. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 13.

35. Simon Clarke. “The Crisis of Fordism or the Crisis of Social Democracy?” Telos 83(1990): 71–98.

36. Edward A. Tiryakian. “Pathways to Metatheory: Rethinking the Presuppositions of Macrosociology,” in George Ritzer (ed.), Metatheorizing. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992, p. 79.

37. There is an enormous primary and secondary literature on postmodernism. One good secondary source is Pauline Marie Rosenau. Post-Modernism and the Social Sciences. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992. For a recent effort to link Simmel's thinking to postmodernism, see Deena Weinstein and Michael A. Weinstein. Postmodern(ized) Simmel. London: Routledge, 1993.

[Page 225]38. Jean Baudrillard. Simulations. New York: Semiotext (e), 1983.

39. Jerald Hage and Charles H. Powers. Post-Industrial Lives: Roles and Relationships in the 21st Century. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992.

40. David Harvey. The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989.

41. David Rieff. “The Culture That Conquered the World.” Washington Post, January 2, 1994, pp. C1–C4.

42. One author who equates the two defines Americanization as anti-Americanism: “a catchall for anything of which the speaker morally and emotionally disapproves.” See Edward A. McCreary. The Americanization of Europe: The Impact of Americans and American Business on the Uncommon Market. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1964, p. 1.

43. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 8.

44. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, pp. 8–9.

45. In any case, the distinction between high and low culture has come to be viewed as increasingly valueless. See, for example, Pierre Bourdieu. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.

46. David Rieff. “The Culture That Conquered the World.” Washington Post, January 2, 1994, p. C4.

47. Francis Williams. The American Invasion. New York: Crown, 1962, pp. 11–12.

48. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 63.

49. David Rieff. “The Culture That Conquered the World.” Washington Post, January 2, 1994, p. C4.

50. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 13.

51. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 127.

52. “French ‘Cast Members’ Get Used to the Rules in a Magic Kingdom of Jobs.” Chicago Tribune, January 31, 1992, p. 2.

53. Marjorie Robins. “Awfully American for Grown-ups.” Los Angeles Times May 3, 1992, p. L1.

[Page 226]54. Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 228; Scott Kraft. “Agog at Euro Disneyland.” Los Angeles Times, January 18, 1994, p. H5.

55. Peter Gumbel and Richard Turner. “Fans Like Euro Disney but Its Parent's Goofs Weigh the Park Down.” Wall Street Journal, March 10, 1994, pp. A1, A12.

56. Roger Cohen. “Euro Disney in Danger of Shutdown.” Washington Post, December 23, 1993, p. D3.

57. Brian Coleman and Thomas R. King. “Euro Disney Rescue Package Wins Approval.” Wall Street Journal, March 15, 1994, pp. A3, A6; “Fairy Tale Ending?” Time, June 13, 1994, p. 20.

58. Scott Kraft. “Agog at Euro Disneyland.” Los Angeles Times, January 18, 1994, p. H1.

59. Francis Williams. The American Invasion. New York: Crown, 1962, p. 146.

60. James Sterngold. “Tokyo's Magic Kingdom Outshines Its Role Model.” New York Times, March 7, 1994, pp. D1, D7.

61. Cited in Richard Kuisel. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, p. 230.

62. Arjun Appadurai. “Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy,” in Mike Featherstone (ed.), Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity. London: Sage, 1990, p. 307.

Appendix

1. Robert Mitchell. “Debit's Troubling On-Off Switch.” Credit Card Management, July 1994, p. 44.

2. Peter Lucas. “Crediting Debit.” Credit Card Management, February 1994, p. 18.

3. Barton Crockett. “Banks Unlikely to Find a Bonanza in Debit Cards.” American Banker, September 2, 1992, p. 10.

4. Yvette Kantrow. “Visa and MasterCard Battle for Debit-Card Supremacy.” American Banker, August 26, 1992, pp. 1, 9; Michael Quint. “MasterCard and Visa in a Debit-Card Battle.” New York Times, May 5, 1992, pp. D1, D20.

[Page 227]5. “This Debit Card Dies Aborning.” Business Week, May 21, 1990, p. 52.

6. Patricia A. Murphy. “Regional Networks Drive Debit Growth.” ABA Banking Journal, September 1992, pp. 68ff.

7. Patricia A. Murphy. “Regional Networks Drive Debit Growth.” ABA Banking Journal, September 1992, pp. 68ff.

8. Based on Sandra Lowe. “Americard Banking Cashes In on Debit Card System.” San Antonio Business Journal 6 (1992): 1.

9. S. J. Diamond. “Debit Cards Pay Off—and Do It Really Fast.” Los Angeles Times, April 22, 1985, p. IV1.

10. Jane Bryant Quinn. “The Era of Debit Cards.” Newsweek, January 2, 1989, p. 51.

11. Leonard Sloane. “Debit vs. Credit Cards: Pay Now, or Later.” New York Times March 21, 1992, p. 52.

12. “Fast Food Market Showing Some Advantages of Debit Over Credit.” Card News, June 1, 1992, pp. 5–6; “POS Debit to Become Universal Faster Than Expected.” Card News, December 28, 1992, pp. 5–6.

13. “The Case for National Debit.” Chain Store Executive, September 1992, p. 24.

14. Jan Jaben. “Debit Card/POS—An Uphill Climb.” U.S. Banker, April 1988, pp. 43–45; Suzanne Woolley. “The Dawn of the Debit Card. Well, Maybe.” Business Week, September 21, 1992, p. 79.

15. “Prepaid Cards Making Their Way Around the Globe.” Card News, April 20, 1992, pp. 1–4; “Prepayment to Nirvana.” The Economist, November 19, 1989, p. 90.

16. Nora Zamichow. “Transit Card Plan to Debut Amid Doubts.” Los Angeles Times, November 17, 1992, pp. B1, B4; Glenn Rifkin. “Electronic Toll-Taking Is Being Put to the Test.” New York Times, September 9, 1992, pp. D1, D4.

17. Linda Punch. “Is Prepaid Debit Coming of Age?” Credit Card Management, October 1992, pp. 10ff.

18. Gary H. Anthes. “Food Stamp Program Soon to Be Electronic.” Computerworld, January 13, 1992, pp. 51, 55.

19. “Fast Food Market Showing Some Advantages of Debit Over Credit.” Card News, June 1, 1992, p. 5.

[Page 228]20. Jeffrey Kutler. “Visa Starts Push for Smart Card to Replace Cash.” American Banker, March 22, 1994, p. 1.

21. Suzanne Woolley. “The Dawn of the Debit Card, Well, Maybe.” Business Week, September 21, 1992, p. 79.

22. American Bankers Association. Bank Card Fact Book. Washington, DC: American Bankers Association, 1990, p. 23.

23. Karen Gullo. “Electronic Bill Payment: Low-Cost Systems Explored.” American Banker, January 27, 1992, p. 3.

24. Michael Quint. “Banks' Plea: Drop That Checkbook.” New York Times, March 7, 1992, pp. 39, 49.

25. Michael Quint. “Banks' Plea: Drop That Checkbook.” New York Times, March 7, 1992, p. 49.

26. Karen Gullo. “Electronic Bill Payment: Low-Cost Systems Explored.” American Banker, January 27, 1992, p. 3.

27. The Bureau of National Affairs. “White House Looking at Electronic Benefit System Deployment by 1996, Official Says.” Daily Report for Executives, December 3, 1993, p. A231.

28. The Bureau of National Affairs. “White House Looking at Electronic Benefit System Deployment by 1996, Official Says.” Daily Report for Executives, December 3, 1993, p. A231.

29. “Electronic Funds Transfer Expected to Grow in Medicaid Program, IG Reports.” Daily Report for Executives, July 15, 1992, pp. A12, A13.

30. Stephen Barr, “Adding Dignity to Aid with New Technology.” Washington Post, June 4, 1993, p. A23.

31. “Maryland Switches to Bank Cards for Distributing Welfare Benefits.” New York Times, May 13, 1991, p. 39.

32. Yvette D. Kantrow. “Banc One to Launch Health Care Payment Net.” American Banker, March 17, 1992, pp. 1, 22.

33. Jane Bryant Quinn. “Automated Monthly Payments Offer Convenience and Savings.” Washington Post, October 13, 1991, p. H3.

34. “A Call to Cut Check Use.” New York Times, May 27, 1988, p. D6.

35. Gary Legg. “Smart-Card Applications' Hidden Problems Add to Designers' Challenges.” EDN, March 2, 1992, pp. 83–90; Jeffrey Kutler. “Is Banking Finally Ready for Smart Cards?” American Banker, July 7, 1992, pp. 1, 7; “‘Smart Card’ Keeps Track of Betting.” New York Times, August 20, 1988, p. 34.

[Page 229]36. James Bates. “Banks in the ′90s Appear Headed Back to Basic.” Los Angeles Times, April 17, 1991, p. A14.

37. James Bates. “Banks in the ′90s Appear Headed Back to Basic.” Los Angeles Times, April 17, 1991, p. A14.

38. “A History of Debit and Credit: How Plastic Cards Changed Our Lives.” Chain Store Executive, September 1992, p. 22.

39. Lauri Giesen. “The Private Sector Takes on the Fed for ACH Transactions.” Magazine of Bank Administration, July 1992, pp. 61–63.

40. These data and other information on ACHs come from data provided by National Automated Clearing House Association.

41. “Use of ACH on Rise in the Midwest.” ABA Banking Journal, December 1988, p. 66.

42. Barton Crockett. “Bankers Create Group to Promote Wider Use of EDI.” Network World, February 20, 1989, p. 6.

43. Edward J. Joyce. “Tales of EDI Trailblazers.” Computer Decisions, February 1989, p. 65.

44. Sharen Kindel. “The Esperanto of Documents.” Financial World, July 7, 1992, p. 64.

45. Richard R. Oliver. “The All-Electronic ACH.” EDI Forum 5(1992): 21–23.

46. Ned C. Hill and Daniel M. Ferguson. “Introduction to EFT and Financial EDI.” EDI Forum 5(1992): 12–20.

47. Sheila O'Heney. “Fedwire Goes With the Flow.” Computers in Banking, October 1988, pp. 44ff.

48. Karen Gullo. “Global Electronic Payments Show Early Signs of Growth.” American Banker, January 8, 1992, p. 3.

49. NACHA. “Cross-Border Payments.” Unpublished document.

50. Ian Lynch. “‘If You Build It, He Will Come’: Cross-Border EDI/EFT in Europe.” EDI Forum 5(1992):99–102.

51. Wayne Eckerson. “Bank Holding Company Sees Paperless Future.” Network World, April 17, 1989, pp. 23, 27.

52. Gerri Detweiler. The Ultimate Credit Handbook. New York: Plume, 1993, p. 277.

53. Kirk Johnson. “One Less Thing to Believe In: High-Tech Fraud at an ATM.” New York Times, May 13, 1993, pp. A1, B9.

54. Jerry Knight. “On PINs and Needles Over ATMs.” Washington Post, [Page 230]May 21, 1993, pp. G1, G8; “2 Sentenced in $100,000 Bank Machine Fraud.” New York Times, December 21, 1993, p. B5.

55. Jerry Knight. “On PINs and Needles Over ATMs.” Washington Post, May 21, 1993, p. G8.

56. Bill Miller. “Instant Banking Inspires Abductions.” Washington Post, September 29, 1993, p. D1.

57. Jon Jeter. “Teen Charged in 3 Rapes and Robberies by ATM.” Washington Post, October 7, 1993, p. D1.

58. Michelle Singletary. “Crooks Are Turning ATM Trash into High Speed Cash.” Washington Post, June 7, 1994, pp. D1, D7.

59. Don Terry. “Police Station Becomes a Cash Station.” New York Times, April 1, 1994, p. A12.

60. Saul Hansell, “Bank Says Cash Machine Problems Are Fixed.” New York Times, February 19, 1994, pp. 37, 46.

61. See, for example, S. J. Diamond, “‘Fraudbusters’ Go After Illegal Use of ATMs.” Los Angeles Times, August 25, 1986, p. IV1.

62. Gerri Detweiler. The Ultimate Credit Handbook. New York: Plume, 1993.

63. Jeffrey Rothfeder. Privacy for Sale: How Computerization Has Made Everyone's Life an Open Secret. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992, p. 94.