Chapter 13: Chief Diplomat

In the nineteenth century, when U.S. foreign interests were limited primarily to trade and western expansion, presidents were able to concentrate largely on domestic policy. Today, the wide array of U.S. economic, political, and military commitments abroad ensures that presidents will spend at least half of their time on foreign affairs. But, in fact, as economic life becomes more globalized, the distinction between domestic and foreign policy is blurring.

The Constitution makes the president the formal head of state. As the “sole representative with foreign nations,” the president speaks for the nation as a whole and is often the focus of national hopes and fears, pride and shame.1 In the role of chief negotiator and national spokesperson, the president has great leverage in any competition with Congress for control of the nation’s foreign policies, and important decisions on foreign affairs often have been made by the president after consultations with only a few trusted advisers. The desire of political friends and foes alike to present a united front has frequently produced initial support for and general deference to the president’s lead.

Circumstances such as wars or threats of armed conflict enhance this advantage and have allowed presidents to dominate the formulation and implementation of foreign policy. During such times, John F. Kennedy noted, “The big difference [between domestic and foreign policy] is that between a bill being defeated and the country [being] wiped out.”1 Even during periods of relative international calm, foreign affairs issues usually have offered presidents the greatest freedom to exercise their power and the best opportunity to affect policy personally. In contrast, domestic policy decisions commonly involve many officials and interest groups, require less secrecy, and entail the full participation of Congress and its committees. Consequently, presidents may choose to retreat to the refuge of foreign affairs where they can exercise their powers most freely as leader of the nation.

Indeed, foreign affairs often afford the president the opportunity to gain an enduring place in history. Steadfast wartime leadership, the prevention or resolution of dangerous crises, bold policy and diplomatic initiatives, and historic summit meetings with important foreign leaders can create presidential legends: Jefferson’s Louisiana Purchase, the Monroe Doctrine, Theodore Roosevelt’s Panama Canal, Harry S. Truman’s Marshall Plan, Kennedy’s peaceful resolution of the Cuban missile crisis, Richard Nixon’s trip to China. Following the lead of Theodore Roosevelt, whose successful management of negotiations to end the Russo-Japanese War earned him a Nobel Peace Prize, presidents have used their stature and skills to resolve conflicts less directly related to U.S. interests. Jimmy Carter’s Camp David summit led to a peace agreement between Egypt and Israel, and Bill Clinton’s participation in the Dayton (Ohio) negotiations helped to move the Bosnia conflict toward a resolution. On the other hand, Clinton’s repeated efforts to resolve the conflicts in Northern Ireland and between Israel and the Palestinians were, at best, partial and temporary successes.

The foreign policy records of few administrations are completely triumphant. Although George Washington’s administration was honored for a balanced policy of neutrality, the Jay Treaty with Great Britain provoked virulent partisan attacks. Thomas Jefferson’s purchase of the Louisiana territory must be paired with the miserable failure of his embargo against Great Britain. Woodrow Wilson, the victorious war leader, was humiliated by the defeat of the Treaty of Versailles and his internationalist foreign policy. Carter’s triumph in facilitating an Israeli-Egyptian peace accord at Camp David was followed by his inability to resolve the hostage crisis with Iran. While Ronald Reagan’s hard-line anticommunist policies combined with his second-term summit meetings with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev played an important role in ending the cold war, his administration also was mired in the Iran-contra scandal.

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