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This first edition of Communication and Negotiation, edited by Linda L. Putnam and Michael E. Roloff, provides a much needed discussion of the links between communication and negotiation … In fact, this text would be an excellent resource guide for psychologists, social psychologists, psychotherapists, and marriage counselors, as well as all other parties interested in managing conflict through negotiation.” –Contemporary Psychology “References to contributors … for whom applied issues in industrial relations have been to the fore–are fairly frequent. This is testimony to the sheer thoroughness of the organization of the book, and to the conscientious approach of the authors commissioned to write the relevant separate chapters…. This book is a useful pointer to the knowledge we have to hand.” –The Occupational Psychologist “This publication is a profound review of the state of the art of that speciality of communication research which deals with human negotiation or bargaining activities…. [The book] provides an interesting and well-structured entry to the understanding of the variety of factors involved in the communication processes that constitute a two-party negotiation. To LIS researchers, in particular in the fields of information management and information (seeking) behavior, this publication may offer important insights and methodologies as well as novel ideas with respect to investigating particular phenomena occurring prior to, during, or preceding the use of information (retrieval) systems…. Communication and Negotiation is a useful companion to researchers who wish to dig deeper into empirical and theoretical investigations of the aspects of the negotiation processes…. Communication and Negotiation brings forth many ideas relevant to LIS research, and within its firm communication approach the publication serves well as a profound review of research in a historical context of the negotiation and bargaining phenomena.” –The Library Quarterly “Communication and Negotiation is volume 20 in Sage's Annual Reviews of Communication Research series, and offers the professional presentation and excellent quality one would expect from a work that is part of such a long tradition…. This volume offers quite a valuable summary of the state of the art in communication theory as it applies to negotiation. Researchers in other primary disciplines need to be aware of this work as it overlaps heavily with other disciplinary viewpoints….” –The Alternative Newsletter In recent years, a number of universities have established formal centers for studying conflict and dispute resolution. Scholars, too, have created new journals to focus exclusively on the study of conflict processes. Communication and Negotiation provides a synthesis of the research in this area by consolidating alternative perspectives on communication and negotiation, reviewing the work of noted communication scholars, and suggesting directions for future research. Contributors explore three major aspects of negotiation communication: a) strategies, tactics, and negotiation processes; b) interpretive processes and language analysis; and c) negotiation situation and context. In addition, these studies examine bargaining planning, frames and reframing, and relational communication with opponents, constituents, and audiences. A showcase for communication scholars as well as an extremely useful reference book for negotiation theorists, Communication and Negotiation is one of those rare books with wide interdisciplinary appeal. Scholars and students in political science, psychology, economics, management and organizational behavior, sociology, law, and industrial relations as well as the communications fields will especially profit from this remarkable new collection.

The Communication of Offers in Dyadic Bargaining

The Communication of Offers in Dyadic Bargaining

The communication of offers in dyadic bargaining
FrankTutzauer

PERHAPS THE MOST important communications in a bargaining session are those that convey the disputants’ offers and counteroffers. Although other types of communication, for example, threats and promises, arguments and counterarguments, or other message strategies, undoubtedly influence the course of the negotiation, it is likely that offers exert the most profound effect on the process. The nature, timing, and pattern of offers, and the concessions they elicit, constitute the very essence of bargaining and negotiation. Indeed, it can be argued that if there are no offers, there is no bargaining. One might even define bargaining as the exchange of offers. Consequently, the bid/counterbid process must assume a central place in any theory of bargaining and negotiation.

This chapter reviews theoretical approaches and empirical findings on the communication of offers and counteroffers in dyadic bargaining. The aim is not to present a comprehensive review, but rather, to highlight those studies, theories, and models that emphasize concessional processes. This chapter begins by introducing some preliminary notions and basic terms. Then, after a brief review of early concession research, which emphasizes static views of bargaining, the chapter explores the advantages of a communication approach to the study of offers through examining the dynamic and interactive nature of offers and concessions. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the kinds of questions that must be answered to gain a complete understanding of the bid/counterbid process.

Preliminary Notions and Basic Concepts

The Nature of Offers

This chapter assumes that offers take place in the context of two-party bargaining. Although most of the ideas in this chapter generalize to multiparty negotiations, it is easier to track the dynamics of offers in two-party situations. Thus, this chapter defines bargaining as a situation in which two parties to a dispute attempt to arrange the terms of agreement between them. Viewed in this manner, bargaining consists of a series of tentative proposals put forth by the parties. These tentative proposals are called offers. If the bargainers mutually agree to one of these proposals, then that proposal serves as a settlement. If no such proposal is mutually agreeable, then some default option, called an impasse or the disagreement point, serves as the settlement, and the bargainers reach a deadlock.

Although it is easy to understand an offer in the abstract, how does a researcher recognize an offer when he or she sees one? This question is particularly pertinent given that offers may be either explicit (overtly stated) or implicit (hinted at or otherwise tacitly made). Because explicit offers are much easier to recognize and deal with, many researchers do not consider implicit offers official bids. Such an attitude is understandable, and, for many bargaining scenarios, it is even reasonable.

However, this approach begs the question: What are the linguistic features of offers? The most obvious linguistic feature of an offer is that it is usually, but not always, numerical. For example, the number of missiles in an arsenal, the price of a car, the level of oil production, and the number of years in a plea-bargained sentence are all bargaining issues in which the basic offers consist of numerical properties.

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