The SAGE Encyclopedia of War: Social Science Perspectives
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Copyright
Copyright © 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
All trade names and trademarks recited, referenced, or reflected herein are the property of their respective owners who retain all rights thereto.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Joseph, Paul, 1948–editor.
Title: The SAGE encyclopedia of war : social science perspectives / editor, Paul I. Joseph, Tufts University.
Description: First edition. | Thousand Oaks, California : SAGE Publications, Inc., [2016] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016036719 | ISBN 9781483359892 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: War—Encyclopedias. | War and society—Encyclopedias. | Sociology, Military—Encyclopedias. | Military history—Encyclopedias.
Classification: LCC U21.2 .S323 2016 | DDC 355.0203—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016036719
16 17 18 19 20 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
List of Entries
Reader’s Guide
- Battles, Significant Legacy
- Afghanistan, War in
- American Revolutionary War
- Amritsar, British Massacre (1919)
- Amritsar, Massacre of Sikhs (1984)
- Arab-Israeli Wars
- Balkan Wars
- Boer War
- British Empire, Wars in
- Civil War, U.S.
- Crimean War
- D-Day
- European Military Conquests, 1500–1900
- French Revolutionary Wars
- Gallipoli
- Gettysburg
- Gulf War
- Independence, Wars of
- Iran-Iraq War
- Iraq War
- Korean War
- Leningrad
- Medieval World, Wars in the
- Mexican-American War
- Napoleonic Wars
- Native American Wars
- New Zealand (Māori) Wars
- Opium Wars
- Pearl Harbor
- Revolutions of 1830
- Revolutions of 1848
- Russian Civil War
- Sarajevo, Siege of
- Six-Day War
- Soccer War
- Somme, Battle of the
- Spanish-American War
- Stalingrad
- Tet Offensive (Vietnam)
- Vietnam War
- War of 1812
- World War I
- World War II
- Wounded Knee
- Concepts and Theories
- Anarchism
- Animal Behavior
- Apartheid
- Appeasement
- Archaeological Perspectives on War
- Arms Races
- Arms Transfers
- Asymmetric War
- Authoritarianism
- Balance of Power
- Balance of Terror
- Biochemical Factors in Aggression and Violence
- Bullying
- Capitalism and War
- Citizen Soldiers
- Citizenship
- Civil Society
- Civil Wars
- Clan and Tribal War
- Clash of Civilizations
- Class
- Climate Change and Conflict
- Cold War
- Colonial Borders
- Colonialism, Impact of
- Communism
- Competition
- Conflict Minerals
- Containment
- Cooperation
- Correlates of War Project
- Cosmopolitanism
- Crisis
- Cultural Militarism
- Cultural Militarism, South Asia
- Dehumanizing the Enemy
- Democratic Peace Theory
- Demography
- Dependency Theory
- Deterrence
- Fascism
- Foreign Policy
- Game Theory
- Genocide
- Geopolitics
- Global War on Terror
- Globalization
- Groupthink
- Guerrilla War
- Health Security
- Human Nature
- Human Rights
- Human Security
- Humanitarian Assistance
- Idealism
- Ideology
- Imperialism
- Intractable Conflicts
- Isolationalism
- Language and Linguistic Nonviolence
- Liberal View of Peace
- “Long Peace”
- Marxist Theories of War
- Mercenaries
- Migration
- Military-Industrial Complex
- Modernization
- Nation Building
- National Identity
- National Security
- Nationalism
- Nation-State
- Nazism
- “New” and “Old” Wars
- Paramilitaries
- Patriotism
- Peace Theories
- Peaceful Societies
- Poverty
- Power
- Prisoner’s Dilemma
- Proliferation
- Rational Choice Theory
- Realism
- Sanitization of War
- Security Dilemma
- Settler Colonialism
- Seville Statement on Violence
- Sociobiology
- State, Concept and Formation of
- Technological Determinism
- Technology
- Territorial Disputes
- Terrorism
- Threat Perception
- Total War
- Totalitarianism
- Tragedy of the Commons
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- Warlords
- Warriors
- Water Security
- World Systems Theory
- Economics
- Arms Transfers
- Capitalism and War
- Colonialism, Impact of
- Conflict Minerals
- Defense Budgets
- Dependency Theory
- Game Theory
- Imperialism
- Informal Economies
- Marxist Theories of War
- Militarism and Development
- Military Bases, Economics and
- Military Expenditures
- Military Keynesianism
- Military-Industrial Complex
- “New” and “Old” Wars
- Oil and Security Policy
- Political Economy of War
- Poverty
- Privatization and Private-Sector Military Contractors
- Rationing and Commodity Shortages
- Resource Wars
- Shadow Economy
- Slavery and the Slave Trade
- Smuggling
- Subcontracting
- War Profiteering
- War Taxes
- World Systems Theory
- Education
- Australian Defence Force Academy
- École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr (France)
- Egyptian Military Academy
- Korean Military Academies
- Militarism in Education
- Military Schools, Secondary Level
- National Defense Academy of Japan
- Peace Education
- Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst
- Royal Military Academy of Belgium
- Royal Military College of Canada
- Social Learning
- The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina
- U.S. Air Force Academy
- U.S. Air War College
- U.S. Army War College
- U.S. Coast Guard Academy
- U.S. Merchant Marine Academy
- U.S. Military Academy
- U.S. National Defense University
- U.S. Naval Academy
- U.S. Naval War College
- Virginia Military Institute
- Environment
- Agent Orange
- Biological Weapons
- Chemical and Biological War
- Climate Change and Conflict
- Depleted Uranium Weapons
- Ecological Causes of War
- Energy Security
- Environmental Destruction and War
- Environmental Security
- Famine
- Food Security
- Gulf War Syndrome
- Health Consequences of War
- Nuclear Weapons, Environmental Impact of Building
- Nuclear Winter
- Oil, Military Use of
- Uranium Mining
- Water Security
- Gender
- Camp Followers
- Combat Ban
- “Comfort Women” (Sex Slaves) in World War II
- Dahomey Women Warriors
- “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”
- Feminist Understandings of War
- Gendering of War
- Homosexuality and the Military
- Hypermasculinity
- Military Bases, Gender at
- Military Families, Stresses on
- Military Sexual Trauma
- Prostitution
- Rape as a Weapon of War
- Rosie the Riveter
- Sexual Minorities and War
- Sexual Violence
- Women and National Liberation Movements
- Women and Peacekeeping
- Women and the U.S. Military
- Women as Victims of War
- Women Warriors
- Media
- Al Jazeera
- Band of Brothers
- Blogs
- Censorship
- CNN Effect
- Documentaries
- Embedded Reporters
- Leaks
- “Living Room War”
- Media Access
- Media and Dissent
- Media and War
- Media Briefings and Releases
- Newsreels
- Propaganda, Perception Management and
- Social Media
- Television Coverage
- War Correspondents
- War Movies
- War Photography
- War Poetry
- War Posters
- WikiLeaks
- Memory Sites
- Abu Ghraib
- Alamo, the
- Allende, Salvador, Overthrow of
- Amritsar, British Massacre (1919)
- Amritsar, Massacre of Sikhs (1984)
- Arlington National Cemetery
- Armistice Day
- Bay of Pigs
- Berlin Wall
- Bloody Sunday (Derry, Northern Ireland)
- Cemeteries
- Christmas Truce (1914)
- Cuban Missile Crisis
- D-Day
- Dirty War (Argentina)
- Extermination Camps, World War II
- Gallipoli
- Gettysburg
- Greece, Ancient, Wars in
- Guantánamo Bay
- Guernica
- Hibakusha (Atomic Bomb Survivors)
- Hiroshima and Nagasaki
- Holocaust
- Leningrad
- Long March, the (China)
- Memorials and Monuments
- Mumbai, India, Terrorist Attack
- My Lai
- Nanjing Massacre
- Nobel Peace Prize
- Parades, Role of
- Partition of India
- Peace Museums
- Pearl Harbor
- Plaza de Mayo
- Pogroms
- Sarajevo, Siege of
- September 11, 2001
- Sharpeville, South Africa: Protests and Shootings
- Soccer War
- Somme, Battle of the
- Srebrenica
- Stalingrad
- Tet Offensive (Vietnam)
- Truth and Reconciliation Commissions
- Unknown Soldiers
- War Crime Tribunals
- War Crimes and War Criminals
- War Museums
- Wounded Knee
- Yasukuni Shrine
- Multiple Impacts of War
- Abu Ghraib
- Animals (Use in War)
- Atrocities in Wartime
- Biological Weapons
- Casualties
- Censorship
- Chemical and Biological War
- Chemical Weapons
- Child Soldiers, Use of
- Children, Impact of War on
- Civil Liberties and Civil Rights During Wartime
- Civilian Populations in War Zones
- Collateral Damage
- Combat Exhilaration and Combat Addiction
- Combat Trauma and Fatigue
- “Comfort Women” (Sex Slaves) in World War II
- Crimes Against Humanity
- Depleted Uranium Weapons
- Doublespeak
- Emotional Withdrawal
- Extermination Camps, World War II
- Famine
- Genocide
- Guantánamo Bay
- Gulf War Syndrome
- Health Consequences of War
- Hibakusha (Atomic Bomb Survivors)
- Holocaust
- Horror of Combat
- Human Rights Violations and Protections
- Landmines
- Military Sexual Trauma
- Nuclear Weapons, Effects
- Nuclear Winter
- Pogroms
- Refugees and Refugee Reintegration
- Sexual Minorities and War
- Sexual Violence
- Soldier Suicides
- Unknown Soldiers
- Victims
- Women as Victims of War
- Nations
- Afghanistan
- Albania
- Algeria
- Allende, Salvador, Overthrow of
- Angola
- Apartheid
- Argentina
- Armenia
- Australia
- Austria
- Bahamas
- Bahrain
- Balkan Wars
- Bangladesh
- Barbados
- Bay of Pigs
- Belarus
- Belgium
- Belize
- Benin
- Berlin Wall
- Bhutan
- Bloody Sunday (Derry, Northern Ireland)
- Boer War
- Bolivia
- Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Botswana
- Brazil
- Brunei Darussalam
- Bulgaria
- Burkina Faso
- Burundi
- Cambodia
- Cameroon
- Canada
- Cape Verde
- Central African Republic
- Chad
- Chile
- China
- Civil War, U.S.
- Colombia
- Congo, Democratic Republic of the
- Congo, Republic of
- Costa Rica
- Croatia
- Cuba
- Cuban Missile Crisis
- Cultural Militarism, South Asia
- Cyprus
- Czech Republic
- Dahomey Women Warriors
- Denmark
- Dirty War (Argentina)
- Djibouti
- Dominican Republic
- Ecuador
- Egypt
- El Salvador
- Equatorial Guinea
- Eritrea
- Estonia
- Ethiopia
- European Union
- Federal Armed Forces Universities (Germany)
- Fiji
- Finland
- France
- Gambia
- Geography of War: Africa, North
- Geography of War: Africa, Sub-Saharan
- Geography of War: Asia, East
- Geography of War: Asia, South
- Geography of War: Asia, Southeast
- Geography of War: Europe, Eastern
- Geography of War: Europe, Western
- Geography of War: South America
- Georgia
- Germany
- Ghana
- Greece, Ancient, Wars in
- Greece, Modern
- Grenada
- Guatemala
- Guinea
- Guinea-Bissau
- Guyana
- Haiti
- Honduras
- Hungary
- Iceland
- India
- Indonesia
- Iran
- Iraq
- Ireland
- Israel
- Italy
- Jamaica
- Japan
- Jordan
- Kazakhstan
- Kenya
- Kiribati
- Kosovo
- Kuwait
- Kyrgyzstan
- Latvia
- Lebanon
- Lesotho
- Liberia
- Libya
- Liechtenstein
- Lithuania
- Luxembourg
- Macedonia
- Madagascar
- Malaysia
- Maldives
- Mali
- Malta
- Marshall Islands
- Mauritania
- Mauritius
- Mexico
- Micronesia
- Mongolia
- Morocco
- Mozambique
- Myanmar
- Namibia
- Nepal
- Netherlands
- New Zealand
- Nicaragua
- Niger
- Nigeria
- North Korea
- Norway
- Oman
- Ottoman Empire
- Pakistan
- Palau
- Palestine
- Panama
- Papua New Guinea
- Paraguay
- Partition of India
- Peru
- Philippines
- Poland
- Portugal
- Qatar
- Roman Empire
- Romania
- Russia
- Rwanda
- Saint Kitts and Nevis
- Samoa
- San Marino
- São Tomé and Príncipe
- Saudi Arabia
- Senegal
- Serbia and Montenegro
- Seychelles
- Sierra Leone
- Singapore
- Solomon Islands
- Somalia
- South Africa
- South Sudan
- Space
- Spain
- Sri Lanka
- Sudan
- Suriname
- Swaziland
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- Syria
- Tajikistan
- Tanzania
- Thailand
- Timor Leste
- Trinidad and Tobago
- Tunisia
- Turkey
- Turkmenistan
- Tuvalu
- Uganda
- Ukraine
- United Arab Emirates
- United Kingdom
- United States
- Uruguay
- Uzbekistan
- Vanuatu
- Venezuela
- Vietnam
- Yemen
- Zambia
- Zimbabwe
- Opposition and Resistance
- Activism, Social Ethic of
- Alternative Defense
- Civil Disobedience
- Conscientious Objectors
- Draft Resistance and Draft Riots
- Media and Dissent
- Nonviolent Resistance
- Peace Movements
- Organizations
- Al Qaeda
- Central Intelligence Agency
- Homeland Security
- Human Rights Watch
- Human Terrain System
- International Criminal Court
- Military Junta
- Minerva Research Initiative
- National Security Agency
- Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)
- North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- Pentagon Building
- Project Camelot
- Regional Organizations
- ROTC
- Secretary-General of the United Nations
- Security Council
- United Nations
- U.S. Department of Defense
- U.S. Department of State
- Veterans of Foreign Wars
- Preventing and Managing Conflict
- Alternative Defense
- Balance of Power
- Chemical and Biological Weapons, Abolition of
- Conflict Resolution Systems
- Containment
- Cooperation
- Democratic Peace Theory
- Deterrence
- Diplomacy
- Disarmament
- Human Rights
- Human Security
- International Criminal Court
- International Law and International Courts
- Liberal View of Peace
- “Long Peace”
- National Security
- Nobel Peace Prize
- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
- Nuclear Weapons, Abolition of
- Peace Theories
- Peacekeeping
- Realism
- Responsibility to Protect (R2P)
- Safe Havens
- Sanctions
- Seville Statement on Violence
- Structural Violence
- Track II Diplomacy
- Psychology
- Aggression
- Altruism
- Animal Behavior
- Attribution Error
- Biochemical Factors in Aggression and Violence
- Cognitive Dissonance
- Combat Exhilaration and Combat Addiction
- Combat Trauma and Fatigue
- Dehumanizing the Enemy
- Desensitization
- Distance Effect
- Emotional Withdrawal
- Emotions
- Empathy
- Enemy Making
- Evil
- Evolutionary Psychology
- Fear of War
- Fight-or-Flight Response
- Group Absolution
- Groupthink
- Guilt and Remorse
- Hate
- Honor
- Horror of Combat
- Killing, Burden of
- Killing, Societal Fascination With
- Milgram Experiments
- Military Families, Stresses on
- Morality
- Operant Conditioning
- Peer Pressure
- Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
- Psychological Warfare
- Psychopaths and Sociopaths in Wartime
- Punishment
- Rationalization and Acceptance
- Revenge
- Sanitization of War
- Soldier Suicides
- Stockholm Syndrome
- Testosterone
- Recovery and Reconciliation
- Arlington National Cemetery
- Forgiveness
- Humanitarian Assistance
- International Law and International Courts
- Justice, Transitional
- Memorials and Monuments
- Peace Museums
- Postwar Reconciliation Phase
- Reconciliation
- Safe Havens
- Social Justice
- Truth and Reconciliation Commissions
- War Crime Tribunals
- Religious Traditions
- Al Qaeda
- Anabaptists
- Anglicanism
- Bahá’í Faith
- Baptists
- Bible
- Buddhism
- Catholicism, Roman
- Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)
- Confucianism
- Eastern Orthodox Church
- God
- Hinduism
- Islam, Shiite
- Islam, Sunni
- Jainism
- Jihad
- Judaism
- Lutheranism
- Mennonites
- Methodists
- Peace Church
- Pentecostalism
- Presbyterianism and Congregationalism
- Religion and War
- Religious Society of Friends (Quakers)
- Salafism and Wahhabism
- Shintoism
- Sikhism
- Sufism
- Unitarian Universalism
- Social Identities
- African Americans
- American Indians
- Asian Americans
- “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”
- Ethnic Cleansing
- Ethnocentrism
- Hispanic Americans
- Homosexuality and the Military
- New Zealand (Māori) Wars
- Race and Ethnicity
- Scapegoats
- Slavery and the Slave Trade
- Sociology and Anthropology
- Authoritarianism
- Bullying
- Civil Society
- Clan and Tribal War
- Class
- Cultural Militarism
- Enemy Making
- Ethnocentrism
- Group Absolution
- Hunter-Gatherer Societies
- Militarism
- Military Culture
- Norms
- Public Opinion
- Social Constructionism
- Sociobiology
- Solidarity
- Sports
- War, Culture of: The United States and World War II
- War, Conduct of
- Authorization to Use Military Force
- Chain of Command
- Chemical Weapons
- Citizen Soldiers
- Command and Control
- Conscription and Mobilization of Soldiers
- Counterinsurgency
- Covert Operations
- Cyber Espionage
- Cyberterrorism
- Dead, Treatment of
- Declaration of War
- Demobilization
- Disinformation
- Drones
- Intent in War
- Interservice Rivalries
- Jamming Signals
- Just War
- Military Bases, Politics and
- Military Courts and Tribunals
- Military Geography
- Military Policing
- Military Recruitment Advertising
- Military Recruitment Strategies
- Morality
- Multilateral Forces
- Political Will for War
- Prisoners of War, Treatment of
- Privatization and Private-Sector Military Contractors
- Professional Military Forces
- Psychological Warfare
- Psychopaths and Sociopaths in Wartime
- Revolution in Military Affairs
- Rules of Engagement
- Small Arms
- Smuggling
- Stealth Technology
- Strategic Bombing
- Suicide Bombers
- Surveillance
- Surveillance: Nazi Germany
- Torture
- Uniform Code of Military Justice
- Violence, Second-Order Effects
- War Crimes and War Criminals
- Women Warriors
- Wounded, Treatment of
About the Editor
Paul Joseph is professor of sociology at Tufts University. He received his BA from McGill University and his MA and PhD from the University of California, Berkeley. His research specialty is military policies: how they are shaped by economic, political, and organizational interests and influenced by public opinion and peace movements. His books include a decision-making study of the Vietnam War; a review of the debate over nuclear policy; and an analysis of the security implications of the end of the Cold War. Recent titles include Are Americans Becoming More Peaceful?, which explores the influence of public sensitivities toward war given the George W. Bush administration’s management of Operation Iraqi Freedom, and Soft Counterinsurgency, an examination of “human terrain teams,” the social scientists who were embedded in combat brigades in Iraq and Afghanistan. He has also published articles, review essays, and encyclopedia entries on race and class in the United States, on Māori-Pakeha (European) relations in New Zealand, on the memory politics surrounding Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and on the influence of peace movements on government policies. He was for many years the director of the Peace and Justice Studies Program at Tufts University and has served two terms as president of the national Peace and Justice Studies Association. He has lectured in more than a dozen countries and was most recently the distinguished chair for the United States–India Education Foundation (Fulbright program). His teaching interests include war and peace, globalization, and political sociology, and he has been recognized by Tufts University with its annual Lillian and Joseph Liebner Award for Excellence in Teaching and Advising of Students.
Contributors
Jacques Aben Ecole de l’Air, France
Faisal Abu Al-Hassan King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies
Mercedes Aguirre University College London
Guy Aiken University of Virginia
Maurizio Alì University of French Polynesia and University of the Antilles
John A. Alic Independent Scholar
Carlos Alós-Ferrer University of Cologne
Randall Amster Georgetown University
Robin Andersen Fordham University
Joyce Apsel New York University
Tom J. Arnold Black Hills State University
Zachary T. Arnold Independent Scholar
Jean-Jacques Arzalier French Army Health Department (Reserve, Retired)
Albert Auster Fordham University
Vian Bakir Bangor University
Benjamin R. Beede Rutgers University
Erin E. Bell Wayne State University
John Bennett U.S. Army, Judge Advocate General’s Corps
Marcel Berni Military Academy at ETH Zurich (MILAK)
Kiran Vinod Bhatia The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda
Arundhati Bhattacharyya Bhairab Ganguly College, West Bengal State University
Elisabetta Bini University of Trieste
Amanda Boczar United States Military Academy, West Point
Julie Boddy U.S. Library of Congress
James Bowden Independent Scholar
Allan S. Boyce U.S. Army Command & General Staff College
Eduard Brandstätter Johannes Kepler University of Linz
Adrian Brettle University of Virginia
Benjamin Brockman-Hawe Independent Scholar
Doug Burgess East Tennessee State University
Alexander Burns Indiana Wesleyan University
Sally Carlton Independent Scholar
Steve Carlton-Ford University of Cincinnati
Kasturi Chatterjee Jawaharlal Nehru University
Leda Ciraolo University of California Berkeley
Nancy L. Clark Louisiana State University
Matthew Clavin University of Houston
Steve Cohen Tufts University
Megan E. Collins Prairie View A&M University
Justin Corfield Independent Scholar
Sarah Cortes Northeastern University
John A. Coulter Independent Scholar
Dennis J. Cowles University of Southern Mississippi
Thomas Crosbie University of Maryland College Park
O. Shawn Cupp Professor, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College
Jonathan E. Czarnecki Naval War College–Monterey
Jeff D. Dailey Angelo State University
Bruce Dancis Independent Scholar
John B. Davenport North Central University
Matthew Davidson University of Miami
Malcolm Ronald Davis Bond University
Deborah A. Deacon Harrison Middleton University
Mel Deaile United States Air Force, retired
Chris Dickon Independent Scholar
Carol Elizabeth Dietrich DeVry University
Le’Trice Donaldson University of Memphis
Joseph Donica Southern Illinois University
Brian Drohan U.S. Military Academy
Nathalie Duclos Université Tours
George Dutton University of California Los Angeles
Amitabh Vikram Dwivedi Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University
Marleen Easton Ghent University
Niels Eichhorn Independent Scholar
Evren M. Eken University of London
Christopher Michael Elias Brown University
Gloria Emeagwali Central Connecticut State University
Immacolata Eramo Università degli Studi di Bari “Aldo Moro”
Meytal Eran-Jona IDF Behavioral Sciences Center, Israel
Nancy D. Erbe California State University, Dominguez Hills
Efrat Even-tzur Tel Aviv University
Cody Dodge Ewert Independent Scholar
Marharyta Fabrykant National Research University Higher School of Economics
John Fahey Purdue University
Amna Fatani Georgetown University
Gordon Fellman Brandeis University
Marcos Alan S. V. Ferreira Federal University of Paraiba
Peter Fischer Independent Scholar
Anke Fischer-Kattner University of the Bundeswehr, Munich
John T. Fishel University of Oklahoma
Mona Fixdal University of Oslo
Isabelle Flemming National Coalition of Independent Scholars
Cody J. Foster University of Kentucky
Kazuya Fukuoka Saint Joseph’s University
Francis A. Galgano Villanova University
Jai Galliott The University of New South Wales
Karl Heinz Gaudry Sada University of Freiburg
Glenn Geher State University of New York, New Paltz
Mneesha Gellman Emerson College
Jesse George-Nichol University of Virginia
Joseph Gerson American Friends Service Committee
Emmanuel R. Goffi University of Manitoba
Marcin Gołaszewski Polish Armed Forces
Natalie J. Goldring Georgetown University
Iaroslav Golubinov Samara State Medical University
Rita Gomes Correia University of Lisbon
Richard Goode Lipscomb University
Thomas Goumenos Independent Scholar
João Carlos Graça University of Lisbon
Laura Kathryn Graham Tufts University
Larry A. Grant The Citadel
Joseph Michael Gratale The American College of Thessaloniki
Pauline Guibbaud Sciences Po Aix
Metodi Hadji-Janev General Mihailo Apostolski Military Academy, Skopje
Kathryn Hadnot Prairie View A&M University
Z. Hall Independent Scholar
Brien Hallett University of Hawai‘i
Nada Halloway Manhattanville College
Boaz Hameiri Tel Aviv University
Xing Hang Brandeis University
Eric Hannel Independent Scholar
Todd A. Hanson Los Alamos National Laboratory
Kathleen Harry Charles Darwin University
Alan Hawk National Museum of Health and Medicine
Joëlle Hecker Sciences Po Paris
Donna Heddle University of the Highlands and Islands
Matthew S. Hedstrom University of Virginia
Gretchen Heefner Northeastern University
Donald E. Heidenreich Lindenwood University
Billie Jo Hernandez Independent Scholar
Matthew Hiesterman Eastern Florida State College
Simon Hill Liverpool John Moores University
Steven W. Hirsch Tufts University
Fabienne Le Houérou IREMAM-CNRS
Claire M. Hubbard-Hall Bishop Grosseteste University
Enrico Ille Ahfad University for Women, Omdurman, Sudan
Giovanni Ingrosso Independent Scholar
Laura Tardie Isaac Independent Scholar
Logan M. Isaac Independent Scholar
Hristijan Ivanovski Centre for Defence and Security Studies
Jacob Ivey West Virginia University
Beate Jahn University of Sussex
Alison James University of British Columbia
David Michael Jamison Miami University–Middletown
Joshua W. Jeffery University of Tennessee
Katherine Burger Johnson University of Louisville (Retired)
Matthew D. Johnson Grinnell College
Nicole L. Johnson University of Mount Union
Douglas Jordan U.S. Army
Marco Jorio Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
Daniel Joseph Independent Scholar
Satish P. Joshi MacEwan University
Mehdi Kurgan Kader King’s College London
Łukasz Kamieński Jagiellonian University
Senem Kaptan Rutgers University
Effie Karageorgos The University of Melbourne
Michael Karlberg Western Washington University
Sumbul Kaya Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne University
Regina Kazyulina Northeastern University
Andrew Kelly Kent Institute Australia
Afaf Al-Khoshman Georgetown University
Cheryl Simrell King Evergreen State College
Cranston Sedrick Knight St. Augustine College, Chicago
Zachary Kopin American University
Malgorzata Kossowska Jagiellonian University
Matthew Kosuta Mahidol University
Rotem Kowner University of Haifa
Ethan C. Krauss Tufts University
T. N. Anantha Krishna Independent Scholar
Lauren Krouskoff Independent Scholar
Daniel Lagacé-Roy Royal Military College of Canada
Guillaume Lasconjarias NATO Defense College
Udi Lebel Ariel University, Israel; The Begin-Saadat (BESA) Center for Strategic Studies, Israel
Moshe Levy Ariel University
Ellen Birkett Lindeen Waubonsee Community College
Frode Lindgjerdet Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Matthew D. Linton Brandeis University
Michael Loadenthal Independent Scholar
Kimberly Loeper Independent Scholar
Martin Loicano Air War College
George A. Lopez University of Notre Dame
Ronald Lorenzo Prairie View A&M University
Alexander G. Lovelace Howard Community College
Sebastian H. Lukasik U.S. Air Command and Staff College
Mariza Maccaferri Goldsmiths College University of London
Yale Magrass University of Massachusetts–Dartmouth
Asif Majid University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Julien Malizard Institut des hautes études de défense nationale–Cercle des partenaires
Mark D. Mandeles The J. de Bloch Group
Debra Marshall Eastern Florida State College
Adam Bryant Martin Graceland University
John Martino Victoria University
Gary T. Marx Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Michał Matyasik Jagiellonian University
Peter Mauch Western Sydney University
Isaac May University of Virginia
Mahshid Mayar Bielefeld University
Francis T. McAndrew Knox College
Eric J. McDonald University of Houston
Asa McKercher Queen’s University
Abbas Mehregan Independent Scholar
Patrick A. Mello Technische Universität Dresden
Candice Sarah Menat CHERPA IEP Aix-en-Provence
Filippo Menga University of Cagliari
Trudy M. Mercadal Florida Atlantic University
Matt Meyer Peace and Justice Studies Association
Patrick Mileham Council of Military Education Committees, UK
Shari Parsons Miller Independent Scholar
Harold Mock University of Virginia
Jonathan Moore Tulane University
Melinda Williams Moore The University of Georgia
Christian Morgner University of Leicester
Francesco N. Moro University of Milan Bicocca
Shannon Morreira University of Cape Town
Antony Mullen Newcastle University, UK
Krishna Mungur Solution Concepts Consulting
Estella Musiiwa University of Swaziland
Marta Musso University of Cambridge
Snow Mychals Norwich University
Benjamin R. Naimark-Rowse Tufts University
Keerty Nakray Jindal Global Law School
Tarique Niazi University of Wisconsin
Giorgia Nicatore Georgetown University
Takashi Nishiyama State University of New York, Brockport
Walter Gam Nkwi University of Buea
Lana Obradovic University of Nebraska Omaha
Manuel Oelke University of Freiburg
Kathleen O’Halleran IndependentScholar
Rosemary H. T. O’Kane Keele University
Judith Oleson Gordon College
Lizzie Oliver Independent Scholar
Raymond O’Mara U.S. Air Force Air War College
Eoin O’Neill Independent Scholar
Jo Ann Oravec University of Wisconsin at Whitewater
Christian Parenti Independent Scholar
Seung-Min Park Korea Institute for Defense Analyses
Roger Peace Independent Scholar
Benjamin A. Peters Miyazaki International College
Abigail Pfeiffer Norwich University
Adrian I. P-Flores University of Arizona
Agathe Plauchut Sciences Po Aix CHERPA
Dennis L. Poepsel Daemen College
Rémy Porte CHERPA IEP Aix-en-Provence
Brian R. Price Hawai‘i Pacific University
Elizabeth Rholetter Purdy Independent Scholar
Iris Rachamimov University of Tel Aviv
Rajesh Rajagopalan Jawaharlal Nehru University
Gautham Rao American University
Matthew F. Rech University of Exeter
John S. Reed University of Utah
Salvador Santino F. Regilme Northern Illinois University
Eveline Reisenauer University of Hildesheim
Robert Reuschlein Real Economy Institute
Leah Richier University of Georgia
Gwénola Ricordeau Université Lille 1
Marsha R. Robinson Miami University
Michael Dylan Rogers University of Cambridge
Scott Nicholas Romaniuk University of Trento
Amy Ross University of Georgia
Michael D. Royster Prairie View A&M University
Bader Mousa Al-Saif Georgetown University
Pablo Sapag Madrid Complutense University
Antoinette W. Satterfield U.S. Navy Academy
Giovanni Savino RIAS Sholokhov MSUH
David A. Schroeder University of Arkansas
Felix Schürmann Universität Kassel
Rahima Schwenkbeck George Washington University
Jennifer Dabbs Sciubba Rhodes College
Maciej Sekerdej Jagiellonian University
Yvette Selim University of New South Wales
Efe Sevin Kadir Has University
Abdul Shaban Tata Institute of Social Sciences
Sara Shea Independent Scholar
Nidhi Shendurnikar The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda
Thomas Sheppard University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Jacob Shively University of West Florida
Pauline Leong Shiyi Tufts University
Rebecca Shumway Carnegie Mellon University
Purnaka L. de Silva Institute for Strategic Studies and Democracy, Malta
Ginger Silvera Zayed University
Emmy Bartz Simmons Consultant, Woodrow Wilson Center
Rebecca Simon Georgetown University
Liora Sion Independent Scholar
Janel Smith Security Governance Group
Julia Smith University of Bradford
Philip Samuel Smith College of the Bahamas
Daniel E. Spector U.S. Army Chemical Corps
Philip Spencer Kingston University
Lucia Staiano-Daniels University of California, Los Angeles
Laura Steckman University of Wisconsin–Madison
Stephanie Stella Independent Scholar
Nimrod Tal Kibbutzim College of Education, Technology and Arts
James N. Tallon Lewis University
Nalanda Tambe Independent Scholar
Yuki Tanaka Hiroshima City University
Harry Targ Purdue University
Dillon Stone Tatum George Washington University
Angela J. Thurstance University of Leicester
Robert Tiegs Louisiana State University
Cris Toffolo Northeastern Illinois University
Jasper M. Trautsch University of Regensburg
Kamila Trochowska Polish National Defense University
Robert Van Trombley Independent Scholar
Augusto Valeriani University of Bologna
Alexandrina Vanke State Academic University of Humanities
Miguel Vázquez-Liñán University of Seville
Peter Verbeek University of Alabama at Birmingham
Nicolas Villarruel Independent Scholar
Adriano Vinale University of Salerno
Mattias Voigt Goethe University of Frankfurt
Eman M. Vovsi Independent Scholar
Wanda Ellen Wakefield State University of New York, Brockport
Nicole A. Wedberg State University of New York, New Paltz
Tao Wei State University of New York at Stony Brook
Arlen Weiner Tufts University
Nathan Wells Quincy College
Thomas Wetzel Loyola University Chicago
David Glenn Williams Army Logistics University
James Williams Zayed University
Sebastian Winter Bielefeld University, Germany
Kimberly Woodring East Tennessee State University
Carla De Ycaza New York University
Anna Zadora University of Strasbourg
Lorenzo Zambernardi University of Bologna
Manuel F. Zamora Angelo State University
Mary Saracino Zboray University of Pittsburgh
Ronald J. Zboray University of Pittsburgh
Talya Zemach-Bersin Yale University
Lorna Lueker Zukas National University
Introduction
War, it has been suggested, is too important to be left to the generals. The message is that key decisions should be made not by those whose attention is commanded by the battlefield but, rather, by leaders who remain connected to civilian life. Civilian control over the military is one accompanying priority. So, too, is the need for leaders who will recognize, even if imperfectly, the interplay between the society and the conflict. War’s technologies, weaponry, strategies, and personnel rest on a broader pedestal, namely, the values, culture, and institutions of society. Good political leadership remains sensitive both to the battles and to the social consequences of those battles. Military and society engage each other.
Like war itself, the study of war is also too important to be left only to military strategists. While tactics, weapons, and maneuvers are part of this encyclopedia, we also need to expand our vision in many directions. Time serves as but one example; wars must be set in a historical context that allows us to see both the precursors of the conflict and the repercussions that follow it. Marking history by the dates of the first and last bullet fired is simply inadequate. We need an appreciation of the multiple effects of war, not only on soldiers but on civilians, on the environment, and in diffuse but still powerful legacies that become woven into family life, neighborhoods, the civic sphere, and the organization of the economy. War also has a culture; one that is often perverse, yet one in which the symbols and meanings of war are still traceable in the sociological categories of class, race, ethnicity, gender, and national identity. These understandings are often renegotiated under the experience of war. War generates a broad set of emotions: hatred and honor, dehumanization and reconciliation, anger and love.
An encyclopedia that deliberately focuses on social science perspectives is well situated to investigate this broader social context of war. The social sciences explore the organization of human society and the accompanying social relationships. Those consulting the listing of entries by topic area in the Reader’s Guide will find many of the essays classified under the accompanying disciplines for the social sciences. These include Economics, Psychology, and Sociology and Anthropology as well as Social Identities, a category that spans several conceptual boundaries. For example, international trade has been suggested as a barrier against war, especially when potential combatants realize that they have more to lose than to gain from war’s disruption. In this theory of the liberal peace, trade becomes a type of “non-zero sum game” that creates a zone of commercial cooperation. Following World War II, Europe has been largely peaceful due to its shared economy. While generally expanding, these zones can also exist alongside conflict regions where struggles are waged over the control and distribution of valuable resources, thereby leading to wars that appear intractable and where the traditional military goal of controlling governing structures may not even be a goal of the fighting parties. Looting becomes the main priority. In some cases, informal alternative commodity flows, or “shadow networks,” are established that provide large profits for those who manage them, and a modest livelihood for those who manage to find a position within them. The drug trade, human trafficking, black market oil, blood diamonds, illicit ivory and timber, and valuable minerals serve as examples. The emergence of these networks and their continued operation are often associated with violence. The fact that the endpoint of these networks is frequently the peaceful zones of Europe and the United States is also worthy of note.
While the psychological costs of war have been recognized for more than 2,000 years, new post-Vietnam-era awareness has deepened our recognition that no one comes home from war unchanged. Indeed, many psychic injuries cannot be repaired. These types of wounds extend beyond soldiers to spouses and partners, families, and communities. The impact of violence on the personal lives of civilians in war zones is difficult to measure with precision, but it is clearly substantial. Other essays focusing on individual behavior explore the importance of threat perception, fear, and the tendency to misread or misunderstand the goals and intentions of those on the other side.
The modern condition is often associated with greater compassion, empathy, and respect for human life. As societies become more complex and individuals and groups more interdependent, the “circle of responsibility” grows wider, cosmopolitan norms spread, and an international legal system becomes more robust. These developments create room for hope. In fact, durable and just peace rests upon strengthening these tendencies. Unfortunately, greater caring for others continues to share space with discrimination, racism, xenophobia, and other negative tendencies that were supposed to subside with “development.” Many of these topics are explored in the encyclopedia, alongside the concepts of ethnicity and class, tribal warfare, and civil society, whereas other entries focus directly on the contribution offered by sociology and anthropology.
Many of the essays classified under Concepts and Theories address the traditional concerns of political science, the field of international relations, and the nature of the state system. Under Nations, this encyclopedia includes an entry on virtually every country in the world. Many of these nations have participated in devastating conflicts, and establishing a cooperative system of states still seems to be one of the best methods of limiting if not eliminating the practice of war. At the same time, national security demands not just control of one’s own territory and political institutions but new attention to the centrality of water, health, food, and other forms of security. Mature political democracies do offer a kind of conditional hope, even as some engage in armed conflict, because the evidence indicates that they do not go to war with each other. But a sobering trend is that the quality of many democracies is in decline due to the role of money in the electoral process, increased partisanship, the lower quality of media coverage, and increased anger in civil society. Strong democracies are given to thoughtful give-and-take and respect for the perspectives offered by others. Weaker forms contain angry voices, dwell upon threats, and harbor violent and punitive means to guard the domain.
While war mobilization has on occasion opened the door for greater participation of women in public life—as during World War II in the United States—a far more prevalent pattern for gender in contemporary war is an increase in female casualties, especially where civilians are exposed to the fighting, and sexual violence. In a series of essays exploring Gender, our contributors demonstrate how women do not just become “collateral damage” but can also be subject to direct targeting by opposing militaries. Women have also played a significant role in the fighting forces of some tribes and national liberation movements, and increasingly in the militaries organized by modern states. In the United States, with the All-Volunteer Force, women have moved from less than 2% to close to 15% of the armed forces. During the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and with a declared end to the combat ban, women have moved closer to the front lines as well. A similar renegotiation of traditional gender roles in the military has occurred for gays and lesbians in many countries, and, in the case of the United States, with the end of the exclusionary policy of “don’t ask, don’t tell.” The interplay between gender and war is one particular application of one of the most important themes in this encyclopedia: consideration of the Multiple Impacts of War.
The importance of gender to the understanding of war also reminds us of the contributions of other interdisciplinary fields that blend the social sciences with the humanities and the natural sciences. These essays have been classified under Environment, Media, and Religious Traditions. Those who study war are gaining a new appreciation of many of the hitherto unrecognized costs of war, including environmental damage and exposure to multiple toxins. Some of these legacies are from particular wars such as Vietnam and the Gulf War; many are associated with the manufacture of nuclear weapons. There is also the real possibility that current and future climate change will create more refugees and underscore new motivations for fighting.
War has always been fought with an eye to an audience, both on the home front and to those on the other side. Through essays on photography, documentaries, television, and the practice of journalism itself, the encyclopedia calls attention to the relationship between media and war. Advances in technology, the digital revolution, and populations who have become ever more dependent on visual culture have only reinforced the need to understand this side of war: how it can be celebrated by some authorities and bind some in the public to its practices, even as others recoil in horror when the costs of war are made apparent by journalists, photographers, and narrators.
From the standpoint of the individual, making sense of war can be elusive. Many are guided by their chosen spiritual traditions, which often explicitly address the ethical dimensions of participating in struggles where death and injury of other humans are a principal goal. While virtually every major religious tradition provides at least qualified spiritual approval for going to war, the same traditions hold imperatives that encourage their practitioners to search for peace as well. And several remarkable faiths have created full, unambiguous “peace churches.” This encyclopedia contains a treatment of every religious tradition.
The historical record indicates that recruiting people to fight is a process that does not always run smoothly. Individuals have to be brought to the battlefield by coercion or conscription. Some have been inspired by self-protection, patriotism, or because the people on the other side appear as enemies. The training process can deepen the intensity of these motivations. But as the essays collected under Opposition and Resistance make clear, individuals have also struggled against the practice. Over time, the argument that individuals cannot be compelled to fight has gained growing support; for the last 150 years, virtually every nation-state war has been accompanied by a significant number who have resisted participation in that conflict as a matter of principle.
In addition to direct opposition, the encyclopedia has collected a large number of essays under the category Preventing and Managing Conflict. Examples include the law, be it in the form of the International Criminal Court, or in special tribunals, international treaties, other arms control efforts, or measures passed by the United Nations. In addition to legal systems, prevention can be strengthened through conflict resolution and other forms of negotiation and diplomacy.
Many of the Memory Sites and the Legacies of Battle that are discussed in this project point to the human sensitivities surrounding casualties and other losses. What roles do cemeteries and museums offer as particular ways of remembering wars, and can they do so in ways that may make it more difficult for these tragedies to be repeated? At the same time, we often forget—or are guided to forget—many of the actions carried out in our name. Social amnesia, as well as remembering, is an important part of the story. Finally, as the collection of essays under the title Recovery and Reconciliation indicates, we can be devastated by war, and yet often human beings demonstrate a remarkable capacity to recover.
Conduct of War investigates many of the social practices within war itself. These include the creation and the treatment of casualties, changes in how the dead and the wounded have been treated over time, and the rules and understandings, such as just war, that ideally govern the conduct of fighting units. Technology provides another example of how social innovation has affected war. There can be no doubt that war and mechanical efficiency have gone hand-in-hand. Weapons have become more sophisticated. They kill more easily and provide more options for carrying out the task. Like other features of modern society, war has become more engineered, more specialized, and more professional. For all of its promise of progress, modernity has brought the machine gun, the atomic bomb, chemical weapons, and death camps governed by carefully thought out rules to enable them to run efficiently. The digital revolution is no exception to this trend. The current best application of the so-called “revolution in military affairs,” the drone, may actually make it easier to go to war. The patterns accompanying contemporary war are not simple; they can be waged by professionalized states and by warlords, for a balance of power and for plunder, in the name of humanitarian intervention and to create presumed traditional, sacred places. Modern wars can be discriminating and precise, and particularly brutal toward civilians, women, and children.
I do hope that those consulting the essays in this encyclopedia will take lessons, consider the broad perspectives, and be encouraged to develop alternatives to war. We know there are better ways.
*****
An enormous project such as this will generate considerable debts. I should like to express my appreciation to many people at SAGE, including Leticia Gutierrez, who managed the invaluable Internet portal for the project; Jane Haenel, who organized the production process so smoothly; and a team of hard-working, excellent editors including Linda Gray, Carole Maurer, Kate Peterson, and Sanford Robinson. Diana Axelsen, the developmental editor for the entire project, was tireless, committed, and wise. I appreciated her counsel as we handled the inevitable difficult situations that emerged, suggested new topics to add to the original list, and contributed her own judgments on essays where I needed a second opinion.
My greatest debt is to the authors themselves. They came from many vantage points: professional social scientists who were experts in their various disciplines and specialties; those from military backgrounds who offered unique perspectives on the social legacies of different weapons programs, the impact of schools, academies, and other training centers, and the broad significance of particular battles and strategic doctrine; and critics of war who used their years of experience to explore alternatives. Many of our contributors live and work outside the United States and offered perspectives that prevented an overly Eurocentric approach. Due to this diversity, these pages do not offer a single voice. We encounter different points of reference, alternative perspectives, and competing intellectual frameworks. Yet, collectively, they have succeeded in expanding our vision and deepening our appreciation of the need to see war through the broadest possible lens.
10.4135/9781483359878.n5
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