
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Political Behavior
Encyclopedias
Publication Year: 2017
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483391144
Subject: Political Behavior (general)
- Reader's Guide
- Entries A-Z
- Subject Index
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Copyright
Copyright © 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Moghaddam, Fathali M., editor.
Title: SAGE encyclopedia of political behavior / editor, Fathali M. Moghaddam, Georgetown University.
Description: First edition. | Thousand Oaks, California : SAGE Publications, Inc., [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017004456 | ISBN 9781483391168 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Political psychology. | Political science–Encyclopedias.
Classification: LCC JA74.5 .S23 2017 | DDC 320.01/9–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017004456
Printed in the United States of America.
Acquisitions Editor: Maureen Adams
Editorial Assistant: Jordan Enobakhare
Developmental Editor: Sanford Robinson
Production Editor: Jane Haenel
Reference Systems Manager: Leticia Gutierrez
Copy Editors: Diane DiMura, Kim Husband
Typesetter: Hurix Systems Pvt. Ltd.
Proofreaders: Scott Oney, Susan Schon
Indexer: Robie Grant
Cover Designer: Candice Harman
Marketing Manager: Kate Brummitt
Editorial Board
Editor
Fathali M. Moghaddam Georgetown University
Editorial Board
Rom Harré Oxford University
Leonie Huddy Stony Brook University
Deborah Prentice Princeton University
Donald M. Taylor McGill University
Tom Tyler Yale Law School
Michael Wessells Columbia University
Acknowledgements
To the memory of Hannah Arendt 1906–1975
List of Entries
Reader’s Guide
The Reader’s Guide is provided to aid readers in identifying entries on related topics. It classifies entries into 11 general topical categories: (1) Cognitive Processes; (2) Group Identities and Influence; (3) Individual Political Behavior; (4) International/Comparative Perspectives; (5) Justice and Political Behavior; (6) Media, Discourse, and Communications; (7) Policies and Political Behavior; (8) Political Systems; (9) Security and Terrorism; (10) Social Political Movements; (11) Theories of Political Behavior; and (12) Voting Behavior and Political Campaigns. Entries may appear in multiple categories, and often do.
- Cognitive Processes
- Attribution Theory
- Closure, Need for
- Collective Action
- Confirmation Bias
- Decision Making
- Hearts and Minds Approach
- Images and Theory in International Relations
- Insurgency
- Locus of Control
- Moral Dilemmas
- Morality and Politics
- Political Morality
- Political Plasticity
- Prejudice
- Risky Shift
- Routes to Persuasion, Central and Peripheral
- Self-Categorization Theory
- Significance, Need for
- Similarity-Attraction
- Social Categories
- Social Cognition
- Source Bias
- Stereotypes
- Symbolic Racism
- Tolerance for Ambiguity
- Group Identities and Influence
- Activism
- Aggressive Capitulation
- Agonism
- American Exceptionalism
- Assimilation
- Civil Disobedience
- Conflicts, Protracted
- Conformity
- Death of Leaders
- Deviance and Control
- Egocentrism
- Ethnic Revival
- Ethnicity
- Ethnocentrism
- Feminism
- First Ladies
- Gender Bias
- Genetic Essentialism
- Genocide
- Group Ideologies
- Groupthink
- Identity Politics
- Intractable Conflicts
- Mass Political Behavior
- Mutual Radicalization
- National Character
- Nationalism
- Nonviolence
- Obedience
- Patriotism
- Political Plasticity
- Political Psychologies of Terrorism
- Pressure Groups
- Race and Ethnicity
- Slavery in America
- Social Class
- Social Networking
- Social Stratification and Inequality
- Sociobiology
- Values and Politics
- Women and Leadership
- Individual Political Behavior
- Attitudes
- Authoritarian Personality
- Authoritarianism
- Barber’s Typology of Presidential Character
- Bully Pulpit
- Charisma
- Cognitive Dissonance
- Cyberactivism
- Economics and Political Behavior
- Emotions and Voting
- False Consciousness
- Followership and Personality
- F-Scale
- Greenstein’s Six Components of Presidential Leadership
- Irrationality
- Lone Wolf Terrorism
- Machiavellianism
- Military Action
- Narcissism
- Narcissistic Personality Inventory
- Neustadt’s Theory of Presidential Power
- Optimal Distinctiveness Theory
- Parental Worldview and Children
- Patrimonialism
- Political Plasticity
- Powerlessness
- Praetorianism
- Psychobiography
- Psychodynamic Theory
- Saber Rattling
- Self-Esteem
- Selfish Gene
- Sultanism
- Values and Politics
- International/Comparative Perspectives
- Allegiances
- Bandwagoning State
- Calculus of Dissent
- Civic Engagement
- Civil Wars
- Civilian Intervention
- Dependency Theory
- Economic Judgment
- Ecopolitics
- Energy Competition
- European Union
- Free Market
- Globalization
- Hegemony
- International Criminal Court
- International Humanitarian Law
- International Security
- Judicial Review
- Language Death
- Migration
- Modernization Theory
- Multilateralism
- National Language
- Non-Aligned Nations
- North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- Political Crimes
- Poverty Trap
- Rentier State
- Rent-Seeking Behavior
- United Nations
- United Nations Security Council
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- Justice and Political Behavior
- Affirmative Action
- Anti-Semitism
- Biopolitics
- Blaming the Victim
- Command of the Commons
- Corruption
- Discrimination
- Distributive Justice
- “Do No Harm” as a Code of Action
- Equality of Opportunity
- Equity Theory
- Ethics of Political Behavior
- Free Rider Problem
- Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff
- Governmentality
- Greed Versus Grievance
- Human Duties
- Human Rights
- Judicial Appointments
- Just War Theory
- Justice Motive
- Moral Hazard
- Political Plasticity
- Procedural Justice
- Profiling
- Public Goods
- Retributive Justice
- Rule of Law
- Stag Hunt
- Tokenism
- Torture
- Tragedy of the Commons
- Utopia
- Media, Discourse, and Communications
- Art in Political Campaigns
- Assassinations/Violence in Politics
- Business in Politics
- Conspiracies
- Cyberactivism
- Cyberwar
- Diplomacy
- Dogmatism
- Hypocrisy Paradigm
- Mass Communication
- Media Framing
- Mediation Skills
- Mission Statements
- Mutual Radicalization
- Name Order
- News, Television
- Personality Traits
- Political Apologies
- Political Campaigns
- Political Candidates, Physical Appearance of
- Political Deliberation
- Political Discourse
- Political Indoctrination
- Political Mandates
- Political Persuasion and Rhetoric
- Political Socialization
- Political Symbolism
- Politics After Tragedy
- Polling
- Print Media
- Propaganda
- Public Opinion
- Source Bias
- Talking Heads and Political Campaigns
- Policies and Political Behavior
- Caste System
- Citizenship
- Civil-Military Relations
- Counterinsurgency
- Crisis Decision Making and Management
- Defense Planning
- Deterrence and Crime
- Deterrence and International Relations
- Districting
- End to Terrorism, Theories of
- English-Only Movement
- Environmental Skepticism
- Extradition
- Feckless Pluralism
- Hearts and Minds Approach
- Immigration
- Keynesian Economics
- Multiculturalism
- Negative Peace
- Omniculturalism
- Peacemaking
- Positive Peace
- Public Goods
- Reconciliation
- Refugees
- Rentier State
- Rent-Seeking Behavior
- Social Welfare
- “Spoiler” Effect in Politics
- State-Sponsored Terror
- Third Party
- Values and Politics
- Political Systems
- Bicameralism
- Bureaucratic Politics
- Bureaucratic Structure
- Capitalism
- Civic and Political Knowledge and Skills
- Clientelism
- Competitive Authoritarianism
- Conservatism
- Corporatism
- Democracy
- Dictatorship
- Direct Versus Indirect Democracy
- Duverger’s Law on Elections
- Election Rigging
- Electoral Systems
- Electoralism
- Fascism
- Hybrid Regimes
- Islam Versus Islamism
- Marxism
- Oligarchy
- Parliamentarism
- Partisanship
- Patriarchy
- Political Ideology
- Presidentialism
- Procedural Versus Substantive Fairness
- Proletariat and Capitalism
- Public Goods
- Representative Democracy
- Socialism and Communism
- Strong President Model
- Term Limits
- Totalitarianism
- Unicameralism
- Security and Terrorism
- al Qaeda
- Asymmetric Warfare
- Drones
- Hostage Taking
- Human Trafficking
- Islamic State
- Maritime Terrorism
- Mutual Radicalization
- Narcoterrorism
- Nuclear Taboo
- Political Psychologies of Terrorism
- Refugees
- State Development
- State-Sponsored Terror
- Terrorism, Theories and Models
- Terrorist Networks
- Transitioning Fragile States
- Wars of Attrition
- Social Political Movements
- Alienation
- Biopolitics
- Brand Identification and Loyalty
- Cyberactivism
- Gerontology, Sociopolitical
- Get-Out-the-Vote Efforts
- Internet Jihadism
- Islam Versus Islamism
- Jihad
- Mutual Radicalization
- Neoliberalism
- Pluralism
- Political Plasticity
- Radicalization
- Ritual in Politics
- Self-Help Ideology
- Social Darwinism
- Social Influence
- Social Movements
- Social Revolts
- Values
- Values and Politics
- Women’s Liberation Movement
- Youth and Political Change
- Theories of Political Behavior
- Absolutism
- Bellicism
- Clash of Civilizations
- Conflict Theory, Realistic
- Contact Theory
- Counter-Elite
- Development, Theories of
- Dominant Power Politics
- Egoistical Relative Deprivation
- Elite Decision Making
- Elite Theory (Pareto)
- End of History and the Last Man, The (Fukuyama)
- End of History Thesis for Corporate Law
- End to Terrorism, Theories of
- Essentialism
- Extended Contact
- Functionalism
- Group Relative Deprivation
- Imagined Contact
- Indoctrination
- Legitimacy, Forms of
- Liberalism
- Malthusian Cycle
- Materialism: Rational and Psychological Perspectives
- Meritocracy
- Nationalism
- New Left
- Pacifism
- Positioning Theory
- Prisoner’s Dilemma
- Realism
- Relative Deprivation Theory
- Resource Mobilization
- Ripeness Theory and Conflict Resolution
- Sleeper Effect
- Social Contract
- Social Dominance Orientation
- Social Dominance Theory
- Social Identity Theory
- Social Investment Theory
- Springboard Model of Dictatorship
- Stability-Instability Paradox
- State-Sponsored Terror
- System Justification
- Terror Management Theory
- Terrorism, Theories and Models
- Transitology
- Veil of Ignorance in Rawlsian Theory
- Voting Behavior, Theories of
- Weber’s Protestant Ethic
- Voting Behavior and Political Campaigns
- Advocacy
- Allocation
- Blue-Dog Democrats
- Civic and Political Knowledge and Skills
- Decision Making
- Disengagement
- Economic-Based Voting Blocs
- Emotions and Political Decision Making
- Emotions and Voting
- Ethnicity-Based Voting Blocs
- Expected-Utility Model
- Framing Effects
- Heuristics
- Hierarchy of Needs
- Implicit Association Test
- Implicit Cognitive Processes and Voting
- Life Cycle Effects
- Lobbying
- Minority Voters
- Motivated Reasoning
- Party Identification
- Party List
- Party Systems
- Political Participation
- Political Plasticity
- Prospect Theory
- Rational Choice
- Religion-Based Voting Blocs
- Religiosity
- Rural Voters
- Social Capital
- Suburban Voters
- Trust
- Urban Voters
- Voter Disenfranchisement
- Voter Identification
- Voter Mobility
- Voting, History of
- Voting Behavior, Theories of
About the Editor
Fathali M. Moghaddam, PhD (University of Surrey, England), is Professor of Psychology and Director of the Interdisciplinary Program in Cognitive Science, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, and the editor of Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology (a quarterly journal published by the American Psychological Association). Dr. Moghaddam was born in Iran, was educated from an early age in England, and worked for the United Nations and for McGill University before joining Georgetown in 1990. He returned to Iran in the “spring of revolution” in 1979 and was researching there during the hostage-taking crisis and the early years of the Iran-Iraq war. He has conducted experimental and field research in numerous cultural contexts and published extensively on radicalization, intergroup conflict, human rights and duties, the psychology of dictatorship and democracy, and causal explanations. He has received a number of prestigious academic awards, and his most recent books include The Psychology of Democracy (2016), The Psychology of Dictatorship (2013), and Questioning Causality: Scientific Explorations of Cause and Consequence Across Social Contexts (2016, with Rom Harré).
Contributors
Hyangseon Ahn Georgetown University
Parveen Akhtar University of Bradford, UK
Kara S. Alaimo Hofstra University
Bethany Albertson University of Texas at Austin
Jo-Ann Amadeo Marymount University
Kenneth T. Andrews University of North Carolina Chapel Hill
Arije Antinori CRI.ME LAB “Sapienza” University of Rome, Italy
Elena Aoun Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium
Robert Apel Rutgers University
Jean-Louis Arcand Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva, Switzerland
Robert W. William Armstrong University of North Alabama
Jamie Arndt University of Missouri, Columbia
Jacob Aronson University of Maryland
Lonna Rae Atkeson University of New Mexico
Catherine Atwong California State University Fullerton
Daniel Augenstein Tilburg University, The Netherlands
Constantina Badea Université Paris Ouest Nanterre, France
Badri Bajaj Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, India
Anjana Balakrishnan University of Western Ontario, Canada
Paolo Balduzzi Catholic University of the Sacred Heart
Danny L. Balfour Grand Valley State University
Rasa Balocˇkaite˙ Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania
Smita C. Banerjee Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center
Chris Barker Southwestern College
Daniel Barnhizer Michigan State University College of Law
David Barnhizer Cleveland State University, Marshall College of Law
Brock Bastian University of Melbourne, Australia
Alexander Baturo Dublin City University, Ireland
Roy Baumeister Florida State University
Cristiano Bee Kadir Has University, Turkey
Jean-François Bélanger McGill University, Canada
Laura N. Bell West Texas A&M University
Lihi Ben Shitrit University of Georgia
Arthur Asa Berger San Francisco State University
Christofer Berglund Uppsala University, Sweden
Sten Berglund Örebro University, Sweden
Joan Berzoff Smith College
Tina Besley University of Waikato, New Zealand
Robert J. Bies Georgetown University
Thomas A. Birkland North Carolina State University
Madeleine Blackman Georgetown University
Sarai Blincoe Longwood University
Klaus Boehnke Jacobs University Bremen gGmbH, Germany
Louis Bolce Baruch College
Angela L. Bos College of Wooster
David Bradley La Trobe University, Australia
Cindy Brock University of Wyoming
David Brulé Independent Scholar, Sweetwater, Tennessee
Justin P. Bruner Australian National University, Canberra
Dominic Bryan Queen’s University Belfast, UK
Kenneth Bryant Jr. University of Missouri
Heather E. Bullock University of California, Santa Cruz
Michael N. Bultmann University of Missouri, Columbia
Tom R. Burns Uppsala University, Sweden
Fredrik Bynander Swedish Defence University
Michael A. Cacciatore University of Georgia
Lindsey Cameron University of Kent, UK
Howard Campbell University of Texas at El Paso
John L. Campbell Dartmouth College
Sierra Campbell Georgetown University
Diana Cárdenas Université de Montréal, Canada
David Carment Carleton University, Canada
Edward G. Carmines Indiana University
Michael Carrell Northern Kentucky University
William Case City University of Hong Kong
Emilio J. Castilla Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Viktorija L. A. Cˇeginskas University of Turku, Finland
Ivan Cerovac University of Trieste, Italy
Amanda Chappell Longwood University
Ioannis Chapsos Coventry University, UK
Benoît Cherré Université du Québec a Montréal, Canada
Daniel J. Christie Ohio State University
Kursat Cinar Bilkent University, Turkey
Andrew Civettini Knox College
Lorenzo Cladi Plymouth University, UK
Michele Anne Clark George Washington University
Harold D. Clarke University of Texas at Dallas
David Coates Wake Forest University
Raphael S. Cohen RAND Corporation
Meghan Condon DePaul University
Corey L. Cook University of Washington Tacoma
Rachel Corbman Stony Brook University
William Costanza Marymount University
Rory Costello University of Limerick, Ireland
Lauren Covalucci American Psychological Association
Richard J. Crisp Aston Business School
Ruth Dassonneville Université de Montréal, Canada
H. Louise Davis Miami University
Paul K. Davis Pardee RAND Graduate School
Roxane de la Sablonnière Université de Montréal, Canada
Gerald De Maio Baruch College
Tim Dekkers Leiden Law School, The Netherlands
Samuel C. Dicke University of Missouri
Myrthe Doedens Georgetown University
James M. Dorsey S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Singapore
Steven N. Durlauf University of Wisconsin
Megan Earle Brock University
Eric C. Edwards Utah State University
Boia Efraime Mozambican Association of Psychology
Nir Eisikovits Suffolk University, UK
Said Elbanna Qatar University
Michael Ent Florida State University
Secil Ertorer York University, Canada
Judith Escuin Checa Queen’s University Belfast, UK
Victoria M. Esses University of Western Ontario, Canada
Aaron Ettinger University of Waterloo, Canada
Giuseppe Eusepi Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Natasha Ezrow University of Essex, UK
Mark Fagiano University of Tennessee
Lisa Farwell Santa Monica College
Nathan Favero Texas A&M University
Lars P. Feld University of Freiburg, Germany
Stanley Feldman Stony Brook University
Melissa Fellin Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Ana Mar Fernández Pasarín Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Spain
Andrew Fiala California State University, Fresno
Joël Ficet Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
Olivier Fillieule University of Lausanne, Switzerland
Eerika Finell University of Tampere, Finland
Matthew Fowler Indiana University, Bloomington
Joshua A. Freeman University of Georgia
Charles (Chuck) D. Freilich Harvard University, Kennedy School of Government
Bruce K. Friesen University of Tampa
Shana Kushner Gadarian Syracuse University
Barry L. Gan St. Bonaventure University
Daniel J. Gilman Federal Trade Commission
Fernand Gobet University of Liverpool, UK
Grigorii V. Golosov European University at St. Petersburg
Kevin H. Govern Ave Maria School of Law, Naples, Florida
Kellen Gracey University of Iowa
Bligh Grant University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Wyn Grant University of Warwick, UK
Roger Griffin Oxford Brookes University, UK
Amos N. Guiora SJ Quinney College of Law, University of Utah
Ingrid J. Haas University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Amjad Hadjikhani Uppsala University, Sweden
John R. Hall University of California, Davis
Eran Halperin Interdisciplinary Center, Herzliya, Israel
Leah K. Hamilton Mount Royal University, Canada
Nazir N. Harb Michel Georgetown University
Heidi Hardt University of California, Irvine
Carmen V. Harris University of South Carolina Upstate
Ann (Chen) Hascalovitz University of Cambridge, UK
John Dixon Haskell University of Manchester, UK
Helen Haste Harvard University, Graduate School of Education
Erica Heinsen-Roach University of South Florida, St. Petersburg
Matt Henn Nottingham Trent University, UK
Victoria Hesford Stony Brook University (SUNY)
Luke Hinsenkamp Ohio State University
Arnold K. Ho University of Michigan
Gordon Hodson Brock University, Canada
Anke Hoeffler Centre for the Study of African Economies, Oxford, UK
Karla Hoff World Bank
Tom Hoffman Spring Hill College
R. Lance Holbert Temple University
Stephanie Seidel Holmsten University of Texas at Austin
Peter Hough Middlesex University, UK
Charles Howard Georgetown University
Leonie Huddy Stony Brook University
Christopher G. Hudson Salem State University
Kathryn K. Hughes Independent Researcher, Alexandria, VA
William G. Huitt Valdosta State University
J. Guido Hülsmann Université d’Angers, France
Brandon T. Humphrey Miami University
Swen Hutter European University Institute, Italy
Vincenzo Iacoviello University of Geneva, Switzerland
Jason Imbrogno University of North Alabama
Molly Inman Georgetown University
Galen A. Irwin Leiden University, The Netherlands
Tami Amanda Jacoby University of Manitoba, Canada
Peter J. Jacques University of Central Florida
Rusi Jaspal De Montfort University, UK
Thijmen Jeroense Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Daphne Jeyapal Thompson Rivers University, Canada
Svein Tvedt Johansen Harstad University College, Norway
Adam Jones University of British Columbia, Canada
Garett Jones George Mason University
Melina Juárez University of New Mexico
Frank Jake Kachanoff McGill University, Canada
S. Ayse Kadayifci-Orellana Georgetown University
Kerem Ozan Kalkan Eastern Kentucky University
Vinod Kannuthurai Stimson Center Washington, DC
Stefanie Kappler Durham University, UK
S. Paul Kapur United States Naval Postgraduate School
Jacob Kathman University at Buffalo
Karen M. Kaufmann UCLA Luskin School of Public Affairs
Mark V. Kauppi Georgetown University
Steven T. Keener Virginia Commonwealth University
Thomas Keil University of Zurich, Switzerland
Joshua B. Kennedy Georgia Southern University
Menusch Khadjavi Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Germany
Michael King Canadian Network for Research on Terrorism, Security and Society
Bert Klandermans Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands
Samara Klar University of Arizona
Alexander Kleibrink Free University Berlin, Germany
Chiranjeev Kohli California State University Fullerton
Efi Kokaliari Springfield College
Andrey Korotayev National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia
Andreas Krieg King’s College London
Ronald J. Krotoszynski Jr. University of Alabama
Andre Krouwel VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Andreas Kruse University of Heidelberg, Germany
Clara Kulich University of Geneva, Switzerland
Jon Kvist Roskilde University, Denmark
Sameer P. Lalwani Stimson Center, Washington, DC
Jacques Launay Oxford University, UK
Christopher N. Lawrence Middle Georgia State University
Chia-yi Lee Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Anne Leiser Bremen International Graduate School of Social Sciences, Germany
Gerhard Leitner Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
Shana Levin Claremont McKenna College
Aharon Levy Interdisciplinary Center, Herzliya, Israel
Michael S. Lewis-Beck University of Iowa
Martin Libicki U.S. Naval Academy
Darren G. Lilleker Bournemouth University, UK
Eunjung Lim Johns Hopkins University
Maria Livaudais University of New Mexico
John Benedict Londregan Princeton University
Jennifer Long Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Jasmine Lorenzini European University Institute, Italy
Bernice Lott University of Rhode Island
Patrick L. Lown University of Essex, UK
James Loxton University of Sydney, Australia
Giacomo Luciani Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Switzerland
Klarissa Lueg Europa-University Flensburg, Germany
Bernd Luig University of Mannheim, Germany
Diane M. Mackie University of California, Santa Barbara
Heather E. Madonia Northwestern University
Leena Malkki University of Helsinki, Finland
Xavier Márquez Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand
Anthony J. Marsella University of Hawaii at Manoa
Martha A. Martinez DePaul University
Takaaki Masaki Postdoctoral Research Fellow, College of William and Mary
Lilliana Hall Mason University of Maryland, College Park
Miriam Matthews RAND Corporation
Angie Maxwell University of Arkansas
Daren Maynard University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Allen R. McConnell Miami University
Marilyn McMorrow Georgetown University
Shana M. Mell Virginia Commonwealth University
Alexandra Mello Mozambican Association of Psychology
Jochen I. Menges WHU–Otto Beisheim School of Management, Germany
Peter Merrotsy The University of Western Australia
Melissa R. Michelson Menlo College
Franklin G. Mixon Jr. Columbus State University
Fathali M. Moghaddam Georgetown University
Oscar Molina Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
Jose G. Montalvo Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain
Cristina Jayme Montiel Ateneo de Manila University, Philippines
Caitlin Moore Georgetown University
Cornelia Mothes The Ohio State University
Ronaldo Munck City University, Dublin, Ireland
James Murphy University of the West of England, UK
Daniel S. Nagin Carnegie Mellon University
Amos Nascimento University of Washington
Barbara Nevicka University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Olivia Newman Rider University
Dennis Nigbur Canterbury Christ Church University, UK
August H. Nimtz University of Minnesota
Jacqueline Nolan-Haley Fordham University School of Law
Math Noortmann Coventry University, UK
Deborah L. Norden Whittier College
Erin O’Brien University of Massachusetts, Boston
Thomas Christopher O’Brien University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Alanna O’Malley Leiden University, The Netherlands
Edward Orehek University of Pittsburgh
Hannah Osborn Ohio University
Danny Osborne University of Auckland, New Zealand
Riku Österman Aalto University, Finland
Victor Ottati Loyola University Chicago
Patrick Overeem Leiden University, The Netherlands
Richard L. Pacelle Jr. University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Eleonora Pasotti University of California, Santa Cruz
Jenny L. Paterson University of Sussex, UK
Janet V. T. Pauketat University of California, Santa Barbara
T. V. Paul McGill University, Canada
Rebecca Pearse University of Sydney, Australia
Frederic S. Pearson Wayne State University
Rasmus T. Pedersen University of Copenhagen, Denmark
William V. Pelfrey Jr. Virginia Commonwealth University
Stéphane Perreault Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Canada
Michael A. Peters University of Waikato, New Zealand
Andrew Peterson Canterbury Christ Church University, UK
Richard Petty Ohio State University
Andrew Pilecki Interdisciplinary Center, Herzliya, Israel
Robert D. Plotnick University of Washington
Michael J. Pomante II Northern Illinois University
Joseph G. Ponterotto Fordham University–Lincoln Center
Jeannette H. Porter University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Jerrold M. Post Elliott School of International Affairs, George Washington University
Rodrigo Praino Flinders University, Australia
Anthony R. Pratkanis University of California, Santa Cruz
Janosch Prinz Queen’s University Belfast, UK
Devon Proudfoot Duke University’s Fuqua School of Business
John Quiggin University of Queensland, Australia
José Ramos Honorary Fellow, Centre for Cultural Diversity and Wellbeing, Victoria University, Australia
Amy E. Randel San Diego State University
Halim Rane Griffith University, Australia
Elizabeth Rata University of Auckland, New Zealand
Christopher D. Raymond Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Ireland
Hilde Eliassen Restad Bjørknes University College, Norway
Liana Eustacia Reyes-Reardon New York University
Marta Reynal-Querol Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain
Katherine J. Reynolds Australian National University, Canberra
Stephen M. Rich University of Southern California
David Rigby University of North Carolina Chapel Hill
Heidi Rimke University of Winnipeg, Canada
Kimberly Rios Ohio University
Steven C. Roach University of South Florida
David L. Roberts University of Texas Health Science Center
Steven Othello Roberts University of Michigan
Nicholas W. Robinson Temple University
Martin Rosema University of Twente, The Netherlands
Ewa Roszkowska University of Bialystok, Poland
Leonard I. Rotman Dalhousie University, Canada
Andrew Rowcroft University of Lincoln, UK
Desiree Ryan Humboldt State University
David L. Sam University of Bergen, Norway
Gabriel R. Sanchez University of New Mexico
Omar Sanchez-Sibony Texas State University
Kyla Sankey Queen Mary University of London, UK
Mehwish Sarwari Buffalo State University
Ryan Schacht University of Utah
Richard K. Scher Professor Emeritus, University of Florida
Elizabeth Schmitt University of Arizona
Stephen P. Schneider University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Lee Schrader United Nations University/Waseda University, Japan
Scot Schraufnagel Northern Illinois University
John S. Seiter Utah State University
Petros G. Sekeris Montpellier Business School, France
Maor Shani Jacobs University Bremen, Germany
Steven Shepherd Oklahoma State University
Jae Hyeok Shin Korea University, South Korea
Chris G. Sibley University of Auckland, New Zealand
Daniel Silander Linnaeus University, Sweden
Joanne Silvester Cass Business School, City University London, UK
Alberto Simpser ITAM, Mexico
Manoj Kumar Sinha Indian Law Institute, New Delhi, India
Ronald Skeldon University of Sussex, UK
Heather J. Smith Sonoma State University
William Smith The Chinese University of Hong Kong
Frederick Solt University of Iowa
Nicholas Sosa Ohio University
Brian G. Southwell University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Ramón Spaaij Victoria University, Australia
Seth M. Spain Binghamton University
Mary Stegmaier University of Missouri
Daniel Stockemer University of Ottawa, Canada
Peter Strelan University of Adelaide, Australia
Elizabeth Suhay American University
Sara A. Sutherland University of California, Santa Barbara
Paulina Tambakaki University of Westminster, UK
Kegon Tan University of Wisconsin, Madison
Raymond Tatalovich Loyola University Chicago
Donald M. Taylor McGill University, Canada
Laura Taylor Queen’s University Belfast, UK
Simon Teune Technische Universität Berlin, Germany
Kevin Theakston University of Leeds, UK
Tobias Theiler University College Dublin, Ireland
Leslie Paul Thiele University of Florida
Naomi Thompson Goldsmiths, University of London, UK
Clint Thomson University of Western Ontario, Canada
Michele E. Tolson University of Massachusetts, Boston
Robert Tomes St. Augustine Hall
Mariano Torcal Universidad Pompeu Fabra, Spain
Judith Torney-Purta University of Maryland
Aris Trantidis George Mason University
Linda R. Tropp University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Marlene E. Turner San Jose State University
Rhiannon N. Turner Queen’s University Belfast, UK
Jim Twombly Elmira College
Agnieszka Tymula University of Sydney, Australia
Dinoj K. Upadhyay Indian Council of World Affairs, India
Brian R. Urlacher University of North Dakota
Eric M. Uslaner University of Maryland
Bethany Van Brunt National Center for Higher Education Risk Management, Berwyn, PA
Brian Van Brunt National Center for Higher Education Risk Management, Berwyn, PA
Dirk Van de Gaer Ghent University, Belgium
Maartje van der Woude Leiden Law School, The Netherlands
Joop J. M. Van Holsteyn Leiden University, The Netherlands
Jacquelien van Stekelenburg Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands
Martijn van Zomeren University of Groningen, The Netherlands
Richard Vernon University of Western Ontario, Canada
Barbara Vis Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Sebastian von Einsiedel United Nations University, Japan
Jeppe von Platz Suffolk University
Konstantin M. Wacker University of Mainz, Germany
Michael Wahman University of Missouri, Columbia
Alan Walks University of Toronto Mississauga, Canada
Peter Wallensteen Uppsala University/University of Notre Dame
Kevin Wallsten University of California, Berkeley
Ching-Hsing Wang Hobby School of Public Affairs, University of Houston
Bernard Weiner University of California, Los Angeles
Aaron C. Weinschenk University of Wisconsin, Green Bay
Harper Weissburg Georgetown University
Gary D. Wekkin University of Central Arkansas
John J. Welch University of Cambridge, UK
Gordon Welty Mercy College
Dennis Lu-Chung Weng State University of New York at Cortland
Anne Wetzel University of Mannheim, Germany
Chase Wilson Loyola University Chicago
Luke B. Wood Indiana University
Joshua D. Wright University of Western Ontario, Canada
Ernest J. Yanarella University of Kentucky
Heather E. Yates University of Central Arkansas
Sara K. Yeo University of Utah
Gozde Yilmaz Uppsala University, Sweden
Omar Yousaf University of Bath, UK
Chi-Wa Yuen University of Hong Kong
Marie-Joëlle Zahar Université de Montréal, Canada
Oleg Zaznaev Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Russia
Yahong Zhang Rutgers University, Newark
Cristina Zogmaister University of Milan-Bicocca, Italy
Corri Zoli Syracuse University
Introduction
“Your article has to be written in a clear, jargon-free style so that students and the general public will find it interesting, instructive, and easy to understand but, at the same time, insightful and novel enough so that experts will also find it useful as a resource.” This is the challenging guideline followed by the authors who have contributed to this encyclopedia. I am happy to say that we succeeded in this ambitious goal. It is essential that The SAGE Encyclopedia of Political Behavior be accessible to a wide audience, because it is part of a broader effort to improve political and civic education and engagement. We can agree that this is a very worthwhile goal, irrespective of our political allegiances.
This encyclopedia plays an important part in spreading knowledge about how people behave in the political domain. I strongly believe in the dictum that knowledge is power and that by spreading knowledge more broadly we are also spreading power more evenly, giving the general public greater opportunities to participate in political processes and influence the most important political decisions. Of course, this increased participation is essential to move us toward societies that are more open and in which political power is more evenly distributed among the population.
Spreading knowledge about political processes and political behavior runs counter to the current trend of increasing the concentration of wealth in fewer and fewer hands. This is a global trend, which has accelerated in recent decades. We learn from the 2016 Oxfam Davos Report that the 62 richest people in the world now own as much wealth as half of the world’s population. Since 2010, the wealth of the 62 richest people has increased by 1.76 trillion U.S. dollars, while the wealth of the poorest half of the world has declined by about 1 trillion U.S. dollars. This trend of increasing wealth inequality can be changed and even reversed through better knowledge dissemination, giving greater power and political influence to ordinary people. Our globalized world should not and does not have to be stuck in the age of robber barons.
Better education, of which this encyclopedia is a part, must concern itself with improving the understandings of citizens about political behavior. In this context, political behavior is interpreted very broadly to mean any and all behavior that influences the distribution of resources in society. Such resources include knowledge, information, and skills, as well as wealth and income. Very importantly, “resources” include understandings, such as the understanding of how important it is to engage in the political process. At present, barely 50% of the eligible population vote in even the most important elections in the United States, and those who vote tend to be richer, whiter, and older. Even in most relatively “advanced” democracies, the majority of the population remains disengaged and lacks understanding of, and influence in, key decision-making processes. This lack of engagement by vast numbers of people, mostly minorities, weakens democracy.
Will the major democracies survive in the long term? Will dictatorships expand and overtake the more open societies, perhaps by the end of the twenty-first century? The most important rising economic and military power in the world is China, a dictatorship that shows no signs of becoming more politically open. Under the dictatorial leadership of Vladimir Putin, Russian militarism has become resurgent. Iran, North Korea, and various other smaller dictatorships are becoming more confident and active, attempting to influence events outside their borders. A number of countries that until recently seemed to be becoming more open, such as Venezuela, Poland, and Turkey, are becoming less open and even sliding back into dictatorship. The European Union is deeply troubled by ethnic, cultural, and other group-based divisions, giving new opportunities for the growth of extremist, antidemocratic movements. The “democratic experiment” is under pressure from dictatorial states and movements throughout the world.
We have gotten used to living with the lazy assumption that democracy will win out against dictatorship, that the societies of tomorrow will be freer and more open than ever before. History teaches us the folly of resting on this assumption. From the democratic movements of Athens 2,500 years ago and of Rome 2,000 years ago to those in evidence during recent revolutions (Iran 1979; Egypt and other Arab Spring countries from 2010), it is clear that forward movement toward democracy is not guaranteed. Societies do not inevitably change in only one direction; they can and often do change back toward dictatorship.
I returned to Iran (my country of birth) with the revolution in 1979 to taste freedom on Tehran streets when the momentum toward democracy seemed unstoppable. The seemingly invincible dictatorship of the Shah, supported by vast oil resources and an expansive security apparatus, had been toppled. The road to freedom and democracy seemed wide open. But only a year after the dictatorship of the Shah crashed to the ground and he fled the country, we were back under another dictatorship. This time it was absolute rule by the mullahs, with their state-sponsored religious terror.
Democracy has extremely powerful enemies in the 21st century, and some of them are new. The populist antidemocratic movements of the 20th century, using fascism, communism, and other “isms” as (often misleading) ideologies, have been replaced. The major authoritarian states that formerly used communism as a justification, such as China and Russia, now rely on a complex mixture of ideological justifications, including nationalism and manipulated forms of capitalism. For example, China is supposedly a communist state, but it now has more billionaires than does the United States. The most prominent common characteristic of China, Russia, Cuba, North Korea, and other such countries is not adherence to communist ideology but to authoritarianism and enmity toward openness. These are all dictatorships, heavily invested to prevent movement toward democracy—in some cases, despite the facade of putting on “elections.”
The most prominent new enemy of democracy comes under the guise of Islam. One shape of this antidemocracy front is dictatorial regimes, such as those that rule in Iran and Saudi Arabia. These regimes use Islam to justify repression, violations of human rights, and lack of basic freedom and justice. They are particularly harsh on women and on religious and ethnic minorities, persecuting them and depriving them of even the most basic human rights. What these regimes have in common with non-Islamic dictatorships is a high level of corruption: Because ordinary people do not have the right to protest inefficiency and waste, the level of corruption in all dictatorships rises higher and higher. Paying bribes and buying favors is part of everyday life in Iran, Saudi Arabia, and other dictatorships that use Islam as a front.
But there is a second, more insidious global antidemocratic front that comes with an Islamic face. This is the consequence of Islamic terrorism. As the threat of Islamic terrorism has spread across the globe, governments have used the excuse of a “need for security” to restrict freedoms, increase surveillance, and generally attain tighter control of information flow. In the name of “defending freedom,” governments have limited freedoms and restricted openness—including in democratic societies such as the United States. This has become clear from the information leaks made by Edward Snowden and others. It is highly ironic, and very unfortunate, that an open society must rely on computer hackers for its defense. Without Snowden, we would remain blind to the extent of government surveillance, some of it probably illegal and certainly against the spirit of democracy.
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Political Behavior, then, serves an important role as part of a larger effort to strengthen civic and political education in the effort to support movement toward democracy and openness.
Organization of the EncyclopediaThis encyclopedia is composed of nearly 700,000 words, which make up 365 alphabetically arranged entries ranging in length from 1,000 to 3,000 words. Each entry is developed and written to be self-contained, but is linked to particular other entries through a “See also” list. The fact that every entry has a “See also” list means that the reader could begin with an entry and continue reading other associated entries using these cross-references. In this way, readers actively develop new networks of ideas and discussions by creatively reading across connected entries. This is the first way in which readers can further explore the topic of an entry; in this case, the emphasis being on achieving more breadth by exploring the interconnections across topics.
The second way in which readers can further explore the topic of an entry is by following up on the list given under the heading “Further Readings” at the end of each entry. Each list of readings is designed to include a small set of core works. In this case, the emphasis is placed on achieving greater depth in discussion of a topic.
The selection of topics has been made to include, first, the most important “classic” topics on political behavior and, second, the most important cutting-edge topics in political behavior, the ones that reflect surging new interest. For example, topics such as Dictatorship and Feminism are well established and have become classics, whereas we are witnessing a surge of new interest in topics such as the International Criminal Court and “Do No Harm” as a Code of Action. Through very careful diligence and assessment, we have achieved a successful balance between classic and cutting-edge topics, as well as between topics that are more important in research and those more important in practice.
Readers will also find that we have purposely crossed disciplinary boundaries, moving through political science, psychology, sociology, communications studies, and other major fields to achieve the goal of providing solid and innovative coverage of political behavior. Clearly political behavior in everyday life does not stop at the boundary of any academic discipline, and we should not adhere to such boundaries in this kind of project. Reflecting this broad, inclusive perspective, our authors come from many different educational and professional backgrounds. The geographical distribution of authors is also wide. What authors have in common is a very high level of expertise and professionalism and a strong motivation to communicate their ideas and knowledge to a wide audience.
In selecting the topics for this encyclopedia, using expert advice and classic and current literature, the following broad categories served as a general guide:
- Cognitive Processes
- Group Identities and Influence
- Individual Political Behavior
- International/Comparative Perspectives
- Justice and Political Behavior
- Media, Discourse, and Communications
- Policies and Political Behavior
- Political Systems
- Security and Terrorism
- Social Political Movements
- Theories of Political Behavior
- Voting Behavior and Political Campaigns
This encyclopedia provides a balanced coverage of topics in all of these major areas. To achieve further breadth on a topic, readers can follow the “See also” lists provided at the end of each entry; and for further depth, the readings listed at the end of each entry.
AcknowledgmentsThe completion of this large multidisciplinary encyclopedia, with 365 entries and almost 400 contributors scattered across the world, was only possible through the enthusiastic support and hearty cooperation of a great number of people. I am very grateful to the Editorial Board and the authors for their contributions. All of their names appear in the encyclopedia. The names that are less visible are those of the diligent and creative individuals who worked in the background to bring this encyclopedia to life. Maureen Adams played a key role in initiating the project with SAGE; I owe a great deal to Diana Axelsen and Sanford Robinson for skillfully guiding the project to completion. I am also indebted to Sue Moskowitz for her highly efficient work and timely interventions. Diana, Sanford, and Sue are the magical hidden hands that make such highly complex projects run smoothly. I also want to thank Nancy Swartz, Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, for helping create a departmental atmosphere in which this large and complex project could be successfully completed. Finally, I am as always deeply indebted to Maryam, my wife, for her indefatigable support of my academic projects.
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