Green Politics: An A-to-Z Guide

500 Roman cannon of law, the Justinian Code, establishes “sun rights” to ensure that all buildings have access to the sun's warmth after a long-standing practice of building south-facing windows on buildings to keep them comfortable in the winter.

1306 English King Edward I unsuccessfully tries to ban open coal fires in England, marking an early attempt at national environmental protection. Legend has it that his mother's constant complaining over the thick smoke clouding London leads to the attempted legislation.

1347–1350 In just 3 short years, the Bubonic Plague, a disease transferred from rats to humans, spreads across European trade routes, engulfing the continent and decimating over one-third of the population.

1600s The Dutch master drainage windmills, moving water out of low-lying lands to make farming available. During the Protestant Reformation, they use windmill positions to communicate to Catholics, indicating safe places for asylum.

1690 Progressive Governor William Penn requires that 1 acre of forest be saved for every 5 that is cut down in the newly formed city of Philadelphia.

1800s Advances in agricultural and urban technology lead to the First Industrial Revolution. Unprecedented amounts of toxins are released into the air and water. Later in the century, scientists begin to study the possibility of certain chemicals contributing to an increase in Earth's average temperature—a process now referred to as global warming.

1862 U.S. President Abraham Lincoln creates the Department of Agriculture, charged with promoting agriculture production and the protection of natural resources.

1879 The U.S. Geological Survey is established, responsible for examining national geological structure and natural resources.

1912 In one of the nation's earliest efforts to curb industrial and urban waste, the U.S. Congress passes the Public Health Service Act of 1912, which gave significant funding to the U.S. Public Health Service to study problems such as sewage, sanitation, and pollution.

[Page xxii]1914–1918 World War I rages throughout Europe. Nations begin to master industrial technologies, and the modern military–industrial complex is born.

1920 The Federal Power Act establishes the Federal Power Commission, an independent agency responsible for coordinating federal hydropower development. The commission is later given authority over natural gas facilities and electricity transmission. It is eventually overtaken by the Department of Energy.

1929–1970 Venezuela is the world's top oil exporter.

1932 The nucleus of an atom is split for the first time in a controlled environment by physicists John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton under the direction of Ernest Rutherford.

1939 In August, a letter is drafted by Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard, signed by American Albert Einstein, and addressed to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, advising the president to fund nuclear fission research as means to create a weapon in the event that Nazi Germany may already be exploring the possibility. In September, Germany invades Poland, beginning World War II. In October, a secret meeting results in the creation of the Advisory Committee on Uranium for the purpose of securing the element and using it in research to create an atomic weapon.

1940 The British MAUD (Military Application of Uranium Detonation) Committee is established for the purposes of investigating the possibility of using uranium in a bomb. The next year they publish a report detailing specific requirements for its creation.

1942 The Manhattan Engineering District, also known as the Manhattan Project, is established by the Army Corps of Engineers, directed by physicist Robert Oppenheimer. The project makes the development of a nuclear weapon a top army priority and begins to outline methods for construction, testing, and transportation of an atomic bomb.

1945 In July, the world's first nuclear explosion—the “Trinity” test—occurs in the desert of New Mexico. In August, American forces detonate two atomic bombs on Japanese soil. The cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were effectively obliterated, losing 140,000 and 80,000 lives, respectively. In the following week, Japan surrenders to Allied powers.

1954 The first Russian nuclear power plant opens.

1955–2003 First proposed in 1955 as the Air Pollution Control Act and later as the Clean Air Act of 1963, the Air Quality Act of 1967, the Clean Air Act Extension of 1970, and the Clean Air Act Amendment of 1977 and 1990 all enact similar legislation regarding hazardous emissions into the atmosphere. Eventually, the Clean Air acts are met with criticism because of their bureaucratic methods. The Clear Skies Act of 2003 amends much of the previous legislation. A significant amount of the new provisions are directed toward energy companies.

1962 Experimental developments into satellite communications between America and Britain, across the Atlantic Ocean, prove successful when Telstar 1 is launched. The world's first working communication satellite delivers transatlantic phone calls, television pictures, and fax messages between the United States and the United Kingdom.

[Page xxiii]1962 Rachel Carson's Silent Spring is a national phenomenon, first published in serial form in the New Yorker and then as a hardcover best seller. This exhaustively researched, carefully reasoned attack on the indiscriminate use of pesticides sparks a revolution in public opinion.

1965 Young lawyer Ralph Nader writes Unsafe at Any Speed, an investigation revealing hazards in American automobiles. The book sparks public outrage and influences policy makers to pass laws requiring all cars to have seatbelts. Publicity derived from the book's success gives Mr. Nader a national stage for nonpartisan policy.

1970 Earth Day is made a national holiday to be celebrated on April 22 each year. It is founded by U.S Senator Gaylord Nelson as an environmental teach-in. Today, Earth Day is celebrated by dozens of countries throughout the world.

1970 On the first Earth Day, the Clean Air Extension Act of 1970 is signed into law by the U.S. Congress. Although previous air pollution legislation already existed, the act is immediately recognized as a benchmark for the environmentalist movement by being the first major environment protection law that includes a provision for civil lawsuits. It also sets a standard for all new vehicles to be certified as meeting auto emission standards.

1970 U.S. Congress passes the National Environmental Policy Act, establishing a national policy promoting the enhancement of the environment and creating the President's Council on Environmental Quality as a chief advisor on environmental issues. The most influential part of the act requires all federal agencies to prepare environmental assessments and environmental impact statements documenting the effects of their proposed actions.

1970 As concern with the condition of the physical environment intensifies, U.S. President Nixon creates the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to enforce federal environmental regulations. The agency's mission is to regulate chemicals and protect human health by safeguarding air, land, and water. The principle roles of the new agency include the establishment and enforcement of environmental protection standards consistent with national environmental goals; the conduct of research on the adverse effects of pollution and on methods and equipment for controlling it; the gathering of information on pollution and the use of this information in strengthening environmental protection programs and recommending policy changes; assisting others, through grants, technical assistance, and other means, in arresting pollution of the environment; and assisting the Council on Environmental Quality in developing and recommending to the president new policies for the protection of the environment.

1970 Several months after its creation, the EPA opens its doors, with Department of Justice lawyer William Doyle Ruckelshaus as the first administrator. During the EPA's formative years, Ruckelshaus concentrates on developing the new agency's organizational structure, taking enforcement actions against severely polluted cities and industrial polluters, setting health-based standards for air pollutants and standards for automobile emissions, requiring states to submit new air quality plans, and banning of general use of the pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). Mr. Ruckelshaus later serves as acting director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

[Page xxiv]1970 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is created for the purpose of developing efficient ways of using the country's marine resources.

1971 The EPA announces the final publication of National Air Quality Standards for six common classes of pollutants—sulfur oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons. The emission standards are seen as very strict, and many industries are forced to develop new practices to avoid exceeding the standard. To comply, the city of New York must increase natural gas usage by 300 percent.

1971 U.S. and British scientists begin development of the first wave energy system.

1972 The world's first national environmentalist party, or green party, is formed as the Values Party in New Zealand. Party leaders never get elected to national office but manage to hold local positions.

1972 An outright ban on the use of the pesticide DDT is made by the EPA. In the previous 30 years, the widespread domestic use of the chemical is approximated at 675,000 tons, most of it applied to cotton.

1973 The Arab Oil Embargo begins as a response to the U.S. decision to supply the Israeli military during the Yom Kippur War between Arab nations and Israel.

1973 Aware that vehicles that pass certification standards often fall below those standards after extended use, the EPA regulates required warning systems, including dashboard lights and buzzers, designed to alert drivers that maintenance is required in ordered reduce toxic emissions.

1973 Lead-based gasoline begins to be phased out of the American economy as a result of concern over public health standards.

1974 The U.S. Department of Energy forms a branch dedicated to national research and development of solar energy—the Solar Energy Research Institute.

1974 After sharp increases in the price of oil from the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries leads to a major American energy crisis, the Energy Reorganization Act is signed into law, replacing the Atomic Energy Commission with the Energy Research and Development Administration, responsible for oversight of nuclear weapons, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, responsible for commercial nuclear safety. The act also requires the future creation of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, set to contain 1 million barrels of oil. Because of the same crisis, the U.S. government begins federally funding wind energy research through NASA and the Department of Energy, coordinated by the Lewis Research Center. Under harsh criticism for failing to avoid the crisis, The EPA writes an extensive position paper, identifying the individual household demand of oil as a much larger problem than any single agency can effectively curb.

1974 U.S. Congress passes the Safe Drinking Water Act, putting into motion a new national program to reclaim and ensure the purity of the water consumption. Under the act, each level of government, every local water system, and the individual consumer have well-defined roles and responsibilities.

[Page xxv]1975 The Soviet Union and United States discuss joint research opportunities. A multinational agreement, signed in Moscow, leads to joint efforts by the two nations in 11 environmental areas of interest. These include research in the exchange of techniques for building pipelines in areas where the ground is always frozen, measuring the effects of pollutants on life in the ocean, developing methods for protecting such endangered species, and developing methods for control of air and water pollution.

1975 The U.S. government effectively cuts aid to companies in violation of pollution regulation, such as the Clean Air or Water acts. Federal agencies begin withholding contracts, grants, or loans to industrial and manufacturing plants, and various other facilities.

1975 In another response to the energy crisis, Corporate Average Fuel Economy regulations are passed by the U.S. Congress, intending to improve the average fuel economy of consumer vehicles. In 2002, the National Academy of Sciences reviews the regulations and finds they are responsible for a decrease in motor vehicle consumption by 14 percent.

1976 A specially built radiation monitoring van begins touring major metropolitan areas, reporting on the intensity of radiation, primarily emitting from television and radio transmitters.

1976 Passed by U.S. Congress, the Toxic Substance Control Act creates an inventory of regulated chemicals, including asbestos and lead. Any new chemical must be submitted to the EPA before it is manufactured.

1976 The U.S. Congress passes the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, a landmark bill regulating the disposal of solid and other hazardous waste, after a period of increased municipal and industrial expansion leads to dangerous volumes of waste. Amending the Solid Waste Act of 1965, the new laws set national goals for protecting human health and the environment from the potential hazards of waste disposal, conserving energy and national resources, reducing the amount of waste generated, and ensuring that waste is managed in an environmentally safe manner. The act is expanded and strengthened in 1984.

1977 With the United States still reeling from the oil crisis, the U.S. Department of Energy is created. The new department will coordinate several already established programs, assuming the responsibilities of Energy Research and Development Administration. The Energy Information Administration is responsible for independent energy statistics. The Office of Secure Transportation provides secure transportation for nuclear weapons and materials. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission is given jurisdiction over commercial energy including electricity and natural gas, as well as managing the Strategic Petroleum Reserve.

1977 The U.S. Congress passes the Clean Water Act 1977, which made major amendments to previous water pollution laws. The new legislation outlaws any discharge of hazardous waste into American waters and is eventually made more stringent with the Water Quality Act of 1987.

[Page xxvi]1978 The EPA and Department of Transportation join forces to help cities combat transportation pollution and improve air quality standards. The two agencies develop guidelines for urban planning, including increased public transportation and car pooling.

1978 The United States and Canada sign an agreement calling for programs and measures to further abate pollution in the Great Lakes, which are spread across the border.

1978 In a final measure to avoid another energy crisis like the one that began in 1973, the National Energy Act of 1978 is passed by the U.S. Congress. It includes a host of new statues attempting to redefine how the country secures, consumes, and comprehends energy. One of the most influential laws passed as part of the act, the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA), promotes the greater use of renewable energy. The law regulates a market for renewable energy products, forcing electric utility companies to purchase from these suppliers at a fixed price. In maybe the most significant result of PURPA, cogeneration plants become the industry standard. These new plants, encouraged by the act, generate electricity as well as usable steam, which is otherwise wasted. Another law enacted under the National Energy Act, the National Energy Conservation Policy Act, requires utility companies to employ energy management strategies designed to curb the demand for electricity. Another law enacted gives an income tax credit to private residents who use solar, wind, or geothermal sources of energy. Also created is the “gas guzzler tax,” which makes the sale of vehicles with a gas mileage below a specified EPA-estimated level liable to fiscal penalty. The Power Plant and Industrial Fuel Use Act and the Natural Gas Policy Act are also passed as part of the National Energy Act.

1979 The Coordination of European Green and Radical Parties forms to coordinate many minority parties throughout the continent. By 1989, green parties would win 26 seats on the European Parliament.

1979 The EPA issues final regulations banning the manufacture and use of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), a highly toxic substance widely used in industrial electrical equipment. PCBs are known to cause cancer and birth defects. The EPA estimates that 150 million pounds of the now outlawed substance is dispersed in domestic air, food, and water supplies, with an additional 290 million pounds stored in landfills.

1979 The German Green Party develops the Four Pillars, which become foundations for green policy groups worldwide. The pillars are ecological wisdom, social justice, grassroots democracy, and nonviolence.

1979 New environmental guidelines, known as the “Bubble Policy,” are introduced to entice U.S. companies to explore ways of reducing environmental protection costs. The chemical giant the DuPont Corporation releases a report indicating that they may be able to cut air pollution expenditures from $139 million to $55 million.

1979 Nearly 700 families from the State of New York are displaced from their homes after being exposed to toxic wastes deposited by Hooker Chemical Company.

1980 The U.S. Congress signs the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, better known as “Superfund.” The new laws are designed to enforce the [Page xxvii]cleaning of hazardous waste sites. Broad authority is given to the EPA to assess the threat of release of any hazardous substance that may endanger public health or the environment and to remedy the situation using federal resources. In the following year, 114 sites are listed as top priorities for Superfund legislation.

1980 A partial core meltdown occurs at Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station, releasing radioactive gases into the Pennsylvania air. An investigation later concludes that no adverse health effects will be perceptible to the community.

1980 U.S. President Jimmy Carter signs the Energy and Security Act of 1980. It consists of six main groups of acts titled U.S. Synthetic Fuels Corporation, Biomass Energy and Alcohol Fuels, Renewable Energy Resources, Solar Energy and Conservation Act, Geothermal Energy, and Ocean Thermal Energy.

1980 As part of the Energy and Security Act, U.S. Synthetic Fuels Corporation is created to provide a viable market for domestically produced, man-made liquid fuel. Their goal is produce 2 million barrels a year within 5 years. In 1985, the corporation is abolished.

1980 The Crude Oil Windfall Profits Act creates what is technically an “excise tax” imposed on the difference between the market price of oil and a base price that is adjusted for inflation. It also increases tax credits for businesses using renewable energy.

1981 The EPA announces that 16 states have the authority to manage their own hazardous waste programs—the first states to manage waste independent of direct federal control.

1980 The American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy is formed as a nonprofit organization. Their mission is to advance energy efficiency as a fast, cheap, and effective means of meeting energy challenges. The agency works on a state and federal level helping shape energy policy in favor of energy conservation, focusing on the end-use efficiency in industry, utilities, transportation, and human behavior.

1982 All U.S. public, private, and secondary schools are required to test for asbestos in their buildings.

1983 The EPA orders the immediate emergency suspension of ethylene dibromide (EDB) as a soil fumigant for agricultural crops.

1984 The EPA and Department of Defense sign a joint resolution pledging cooperative efforts in safeguarding the quality of Chesapeake Bay waters off the nation's eastern coast.

1984 The Green Committees of Correspondence is the first green political organization in the United States. Its mission is to coordinate many local green groups into a unified party, run for public office, create watchdog groups, and publish green literature.

1984 Disaster occurs in the Indian city of Bhopal as the Union Carbide pesticide plant releases some 42 tons of toxic gas, exposing more than 500,000 people to the hazardous substance. The immediate death toll is tallied at 2,259, and an estimated 8,00010,000 are killed within 72 hours of the accident. Recognized as the world's worst industrial disaster, [Page xxviii]later reports approximate the total death toll at approaching 25,000 and anywhere between 100,000 and 200,000 related permanent injuries and adverse health effects. The incident gains worldwide attention and sparks international determination toward safeguarding industry.

1984 U.S. President Reagan signs the Asbestos School Hazard Abatement Act, which authorizes $600 million in federal loans and grants to schools with severe asbestos hazards and demonstrated financial need.

1985 The EPA redefines policy for air toxins, identifying hazards from multiple sources instead of regulating individual pollutants.

1986 The most significant nuclear meltdown in history occurs in Chernobyl, Ukraine. The entire area is subject to nuclear fallout. With thousands of local residents unable to evacuate, generations of families suffer from intense radiation.

1986 Despite concerns over the efficiency of the program, Superfund is amended and reauthorized to incorporate recommendations made in the years following its inception.

1987 With an approaching deadline for regulations enacted by the Clean Air Act that many states do not seem prepared to satisfy, EPA administrator Lee M. Thomas writes an open letter to the 42 state governors. The letter outlines proposed plans for delinquent states, saying that “much long-term planning will need to be done to bring about necessary changes in some of the worst areas.” The EPA also estimates that about 70 percent of the nation is not meeting ozone pollution standards.

1987 The National Appliance Energy Conservation Act authorizes the Department of Energy to set minimum efficiency standards for space-conditioning equipment and other larger energy-consuming appliances each year, based on what is “technologically feasible and economically justified.” Televisions are originally part of the act's regulations but are later removed.

1988 The EPA issues comprehensive, stringent requirements for the nearly 2 million underground storage tanks, about half of which are used to store gasoline at service stations. Reports conclude that these tanks are susceptible to corrosion and eventual leakage into water supplies.

1989 The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is signed as an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out several substances that are known to be responsible for its harm. Analysis of the agreement claims that if the treaty is adhered to, the ozone layer will successfully recover by 2050.

1990 The U.S. Congress passes the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990, requiring the EPA to establish an Office of Pollution Prevention, develop and coordinate a pollution prevention strategy, and develop source reduction models. The act requires owners and operators of manufacturing facilities to report annually on source reduction and recycling activities.

1991 The U.S. federal government mandates that all of its agencies recycle reusable materials generated from wastes from federal activities. The executive order also encourages an efficient market for items produced using recycled materials.

[Page xxix]1991 U.S. President George Bush announces that the Solar Energy Research Institute has been designated the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Its mission is to develop renewable energy and energy-efficient technologies and practices, advance related science and engineering, and transfer knowledge and innovations to addressing the nation's energy and environmental goals by using scientific discoveries to create market-viable-alternative energy solutions.

1992 Under President Clinton, the Energy Policy Act of 1992 is passed by the U.S. Congress. It is organized under several titles enacting legislation on such subjects as energy efficiency, conservation, and management; electric motor vehicles; coal power and clean coal; renewable energy; alternative fuels; natural gas imports and exports; and various others. Among the new directives is a section that designates Yucca Mountain in Nevada as a permanent disposal site for radioactive materials from nuclear power plants. It also reforms the Public Utility Holding Company Act to help prevent an oligopoly and provides further tax credits for using renewable energy.

1992 Energy Star is established as a unified standard for energy efficient consumer products. The Energy Star logo begins to appear on things such as computers, kitchen appliances, laundry equipment, air conditioners, lighting, and various other energy-saving products. Consumers who own Energy Starendorsed products can expect a 20 percent to 30 percent reduction in energy usage.

1992 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, known as the Earth Summit, is marked as a watershed moment in environmental history. The conference, held in Rio de Janeiro, also represents a diplomatic breakthrough, opening up the possibility for a new era of global economic growth coupled seriously with environmental stewardship. More than 150 countries make commitments to decrease greenhouse gases and address global warming prevention. The most influential part of the agreements, Agenda 21, establishes a global consensus on nearly all forms of pollution in the atmosphere, oceans, and other global resources.

1994 U.S. federal action is taken to address environmental justice in minority populations and low-income populations.

1996 The predecessor to the Green Party of the United States, the Association of State Green Parties, nominates attorney and political activist Ralph Nader and Native American environmentalist Winona LaDuke for president and vice president, respectively, for the upcoming election. The pair makes the ballot in 22 states and wins 0.7 percent of the popular vote.

1997 New comprehensive regulations are issued in the regulation of pesticides. Children are of particular importance in the Food Quality and Protection Act.

2000 The EPA propose a dramatic reduction in the sulfur content in diesel fuels after reports find nearly 15,000 deaths annually associated with soot and smog, mainly from trucks. The EPA also cites diesel fuel pollution as responsible for some 400,000 cases of asthma attacks in the country each year.

2000 The Biomass Research and Development Board is created as part of a U.S. Congress act attempting to coordinate federal research and development of bio-based fuels obtained [Page xxx]from living (as opposed to long dead, fossil fuels) biological material, such as wood or vegetable oils. Biofuel industries begin to expand in Europe, Asia, and the Americas.

2000 The Green Party again nominates Ralph Nader and Winona LaDuke for president and vice president, respectively. They draw 2.7 percent of the national vote, one of the strongest showings from a third party in recent American history. The winner of the election, George W. Bush, narrowly edges out incumbent Vice President Al Gore in one of the closest presidential elections in the history of the office. Critics later speculate that had Mr. Nader not been on the ballot, Al Gore would have won. After the success of the election, the Green Party reorganizes and identifies their “10 Key Values” “Ecological Wisdom,” “Global Responsibility,” and “Future Sustainability” are all on the list.

2001 The U.S. Congress signs the Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). POPs include already-outlawed—but still used—toxins such as PCBs and DDT.

2001 After the attacks of September 11, the EPA begins to coordinate extensively with the newly created Department of Homeland Security, refocusing their stance on environmental issues as a matter of national security.

2003 In his State of the Union address, U.S. President Bush announces a $1.2 billion Hydrogen Fuel Initiative to reverse the nation's growing dependence on foreign oil by developing the technology needed for commercially viable hydrogen-powered fuel cells. “A single chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen,” the president tells the nation “generates energy, which can be used to power a car, producing only water, not exhaust fumes. With a new national commitment, our scientists and engineers will overcome obstacles to taking these cars from laboratory to showroom, so that the first car driven by a child born today could be powered by hydrogen, and pollution-free.” The initiative will include $720 million in new funding over the next 5 years to develop the technologies and infrastructure to produce, store, and distribute hydrogen for use in fuel cell vehicles and electricity generation.

2003 The Clean School Bus USA program is announced by the EPA, ordered to reduce diesel exhaust exposure to nearly 24 million American children who spend, on average, an hour and a half on school buses each day.

2004 U.S. President Bush's new budget includes $288.2 million for Department of Energy's Weatherization Assistance Program, an increase of $11.2 million above the president's fiscal year 2003 request. By improving the energy efficiency in homes, the program will reduce the energy bills of approximately 126,000 low-income families nationwide in 2003.

2004 The European Green Party is formed from similar separate organizations, refocused on green politics, environmental responsibility, diversity, social justice, inclusive democracy, and nonviolence. The group now includes nearly every member of the European Union, including England, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, the Netherlands, and Spain.

2005 The Energy Policy Act is passed by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by George W. Bush, making sweeping reforms in energy legislation, mostly in the way of tax [Page xxxi]deductions and subsidies. Loans are guaranteed for innovative technologies that avoid greenhouse gases, and alternative energy resources such as wind, solar, and clean coal production are given multimillion dollar subsides. For the first time, wave and tidal power are included as separately identified renewable technologies. On the local level, individual tax breaks are given to Americans who make energy conservation improvements in their homes. However, total tax reductions greatly favor nuclear power and fossil fuel production, and the bill is later met with criticism. During the 2008 Democratic Primary, candidate Senator Hillary Clinton dubs it the “(Vice President) Dick Cheney lobbyist energy bill.”

2007 The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (originally named the Clean Energy Act of 2007) is passed by the U.S. Congress. Its stated purposes are “to move the United States toward greater energy independence and security, to increase the production of clean, renewable fuels, to protect consumers, to increase the efficiency of products, buildings and vehicles, to promote research on and deploy greenhouse gas capture and storage options, and to improve the energy performance of the Federal Government,” as well as various other goals. Title I of the original bill is called the “Ending Subsidies for Big Oil Act of 2007.” Included in the new provisions is a requirement of government and public institutions to lower fossil fuel use by 80 percent by 2020. Also included is the repeal of much of the legislation included in the Energy Policy Act of 2005.

2009 Amid a global recession, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 is one of the inaugural acts signed by President Barack Obama. Otherwise known as the “stimulus package,” it mostly makes provisions for job creation, tax relief, and infrastructure investment, but it is also heavily focused on energy efficiency and science. Multibillion dollar funding is appropriated for energy-efficient building practices, green jobs, electric and hybrid vehicles, and modernizing the nation's electric grid into a smart grid that uses digital technology to save energy. In the official seal of the act, an illustration of a bright green, fertile plant is placed opposite two grinding cogs.