Encyclopedia of Gender and Society

Gender scholarship is based on the premise that gender is one of the primary organizational categories of human social life (other significant and interrelated categories of social organization include economic class, race/ethnicity, age, and nationality). In addition to its importance as the central aspect of personal experience and identity, gender can be studied as a social factor that has tremendous impact on economic, cultural, religious, legal, and political institutions. Gender scholars explore questions ranging from the ways in which individual lives are shaped by gender (our ideas about who we think we can be and what we think we should do) to ways in which social institutions reflect gender patterns (for instance, why are women and men concentrated in different employment sectors, why do men suffer different kinds of disease and depression than women do, and how are women and men affected differently by globalization).

Gender is so significant in the ways it shapes individuals and societies that it isn't possible to cover every aspect of gender scholarship in a single venue. Our intent with this encyclopedia is to provide users with a “gender lens” on society by focusing on significant gender scholarship within commonly recognized areas of social research. Accordingly, the material in this encyclopedia focuses on basic aspects of social life from the most individual (self and identity) to the most global (transnational economics and politics).

The specific categories covered in the encyclopedia include the following:

• Art, Popular Culture, and Sports
• Associations and Organizations
• Biographies
• Body Image, Health, and Illness
• Crime and Criminal Justice
• Economics, Environment, and Ecology
• Gender Identities and Roles
• International Development and Human Rights
• Politics, Public Policy, and Social Movements
• Race and Ethnicity
• Relationships, Marriage, and the Family
• Religion, Mythology, and Spirituality
• Science, Research, Education, and Technology
• Sexuality and Reproduction

Together, these categories encompass the most commonly understood aspects of social life. Within each category, the user will find new information on well-known subjects, surprising information that may [Page xxx]counter common assumptions, and information on areas of study in which the impact of gender has been traditionally overlooked. For example, the entries on Cheerleading and GI Joe provide both a history of these gender stereotypical subjects and a framework that allows the reader to view the subjects in novel ways. The entry on Fetal Rights/Public Fetus describes the ways in which medical technology has broadened our knowledge of fetal development, resulting in an emphasis on fetal personhood and, consequently, a greater involvement of the public in determining fetal rights. The entry on Global Care Chain Work reveals the ways in which women working as nannies from developing countries import love and care to wealthy nations but leave a nurturing gap at home. Contemporary scholarship on topics such as the Death Penalty, Microlending, and Cancer indicates ways in which these areas reflect gender differences that have a significant impact.

We have also included several “framing” essays representing the organizing categories listed earlier. These essays are longer entries that provide an overview of the area and summarize commonly used concepts and directions of research. These framing essays can be used as a basis for reading related topics and understanding how they fit in contemporary gender scholarship.

The material in the encyclopedia reflects the most cutting-edge discussion and scholarship on contemporary issues and debates regarding gender and society. For instance, gender scholars widely accept that the nature-nurture debate is a false dichotomy. The most up-to-date knowledge on gender identities and expression, as well as sexual practices and forms of family organization, indicate that biology, culture, and environment (e.g., diet, medical care, housing, economic stability) are interconnected in complex ways that defy simple explanations. The complexity and nuances of these contemporary frameworks are reflected in many of the entries dealing with topics of sexuality and gender identity.

Gender and society is a complex subject. One of the central contributions of the encyclopedia is the framework of analysis that can be seen when reading across several areas and topics. These frameworks reflect an emerging consensus on both the significance of the various areas covered and increasing sophistication in addressing the complexities of gender in ways that are comprehensible, relevant, and useful. This consensus does not necessarily mean complete agreement on how gender influences self and society, but it does reflect cumulative knowledge among scholars on the necessity of a “gender lens” in understanding human development and social life.

The encyclopedia was developed in six steps.

Step 1. We knew from the outset that it would not be possible to provide a comprehensive compendium of all the scholarship on gender and society. Accordingly, we assembled a panel of advisory experts to develop an organizational plan for the encyclopedia. This advisory team consisted of senior gender scholars, all of whom have published several books and articles in the field, edited major journals in the field, held positions of leadership in the gender-related professional organizations of their discipline, and trained at least one generation of graduate students in areas related to gender and society.

Step 2. A planning meeting was convened at Sage and all members of the advisory team attended. During this meeting we articulated the following as a basis for organizing the encyclopedia:

• Provide users with a “gender lens” on significant topics dealing with the individual and society.
• Identify the most commonly recognized aspects of social life to serve as the basis for organizing the selection of topics (this became the Reader's Guide).
• Identify “area experts” for each of the areas of organization.

Step 3. We then contacted the people who had been identified as area experts and asked them to suggest topics that they thought should be included in the list of entries (i.e., the headword list). We also asked them to suggest possible contributors to write the suggested entries. The initial headword list, consisting of approximately 570 anticipated entries, was created through this process. It's noteworthy that during this phase, an initial “buzz” began to develop about the encyclopedia, and we received several helpful emails from people around the world with suggestions for entries that might otherwise have gone overlooked.

Step 4. The advisory team and the area experts compiled lists of first-choice contributors to author the [Page xxxi]entries, and we began the massive task of contacting these people. The initial rate of acceptance was very high and when authors were unavailable to write the entry themselves, they graciously suggested colleagues with similar training and expertise or volunteered to supervise senior-level graduate students in writing the entry. As a result, we are confident that the entries in this encyclopedia represent the most up-to-date, cutting-edge scholarship in each of the various areas covered. Most contributors are at academic institutions in the United States and the United Kingdom, but several come from other countries.

Creating the headword list and selecting contributors presented considerable challenges in that we wanted to be as comprehensive as possible but do so within the limits of reason given the enormity of our topic. Our method, as reflected in steps 1 through 4, was to make use of the “weak ties” theory of social networks. In other words, we began with an initial team of advisors whose expertise was known to us and then made use of their networks of expertise, thus ensuring a broad reach among scholars working on gender and society around the world. The result is a list of contributors who are sources of the most up-to-date knowledge and training in the field and who share a common understanding of contemporary issues and debates in a way that may be the closest approximation to date of a cumulative, collaborative understanding of gender and society. In short, one of the central contributions of the encyclopedia is the list of contributors and the collective voice reflected here in framing the future of this area of scholarship.

Step 5. Contributors were provided with basic guidelines and instructions for writing their entries. In particular, they were encouraged to write in a manner that was thorough and accurate but nontechnical and accessible to general readers. Throughout each step, some headwords were either dropped or combined because of redundancy.

Step 6. The editor and the associate editors reviewed all entries and requested revisions as necessary to complete the final manuscript.

The scope of this project has been immense. Its completion reflects the combined efforts of many people who were instrumental at various stages throughout the process. Rolf Janke and Jerry Westby envisioned the possibility of this encyclopedia and convinced me that it was doable. Their enthusiasm and encouragement has been unwavering. Diana Axelsen is an editor par excellence and her expertise and insights have been invaluable. I owe much to her keen editorial sensibilities. Kate Schroeder (production editor) and Sara Tauber (developmental editor) have been wonderfully helpful and professional in overseeing the final production of the manuscript. The editorial team, including Carla Freeman and Robin Gold (copy editors), Sally Jaskold and Anne Rogers (proofreaders), and Joan Shapiro (indexer) have done an incredible job attending to the myriad details of this project. In working with them, I have been constantly amazed at all the little, but significant, things they suggest to improve the quality of the encyclopedia. Michèle Thompson (assistant to the publisher) and Leticia Gutierrez (systems coordinator) have responded to all of my queries and concerns (and there have been many) with grace and efficiency. Many thanks to all of you on the Sage production team.

From the beginning, Judy Howard, Nancy Naples, Peter Nardi, and Mary Romero have been superb colleagues. As advisory editors, they deserve credit for envisioning the working format of the project and assembling the impressive list of contributors represented here. The day-to-day work that has been foun-dational in completing the project has been handled by the associate editors, Eve Shapiro and Jessica Fields, and the managing editors, Shasti Conrad and Carly Chillmon. This encyclopedia would not have been possible without them. Thanks team!

George Ritzer is to blame for talking me into considering this project in the first place, and the following friends, colleagues, and confidantes have each contributed tremendously through pep talks, brainstorms, and ongoing support: Michèle Berger, Margaret Breen, Maria Bullon, Wendy Chapkis, Maggie Chon, Sarah Fenstermaker, Gabriella Gutierrez Muhs, Nalini Iyer, Val Jenness, Peter Kollock, Katerina Liskova, Christopher McAuley, Ken Plummer, Jeanette Rodriguez, Leila Rupp, Beth Schneider, Arlene Stein, Verta Taylor, and Yvette Taylor.

Seattle University supported the project with funding for research and travel. I am grateful to my colleagues there and especially to the students I teach who remind me continuously of the importance of a gender lens for understanding the complex world in which we live.

[Page xxxii]My parents also deserve a special note of recognition for showing me, perhaps unintentionally, how to navigate the constraints and limitations imposed by gendered expectations. They really believed that their six daughters (and one son) could be and do anything. I can't thank them enough for their ongoing and affirming support.

The information and ideas provided here are inspired by the countless women and men who everyday and throughout history challenge systems of inequality and discrimination. This spirit of education, justice, and humanity is reflected in the energy and dedication of the contributors. It has been an honor to collaborate with them in this endeavor.

Finalmente, mi gratitud profunda para mi com-panera hermosa. Gracias por compartir conmigo esta experiencia de vida y siempre inspirarme para seguir hacia el nivel mas alto como ser humano.

Eres una nepantlera divina. Contigo y caminando de tu mano.