Merton, Robert K. (1910–2003)

American sociologist Robert K. Merton may be best known in communication studies, as well as sociology, for having urged researchers to concentrate on “middle range” problems: Instead of trying to develop broad, abstract, “grand theories” that attempt to explain numerous social phenomena but are difficult or impossible to test, Merton [Page 477]argued social scientists would be better off working on smaller, more manageable problems where empirical data can be gathered.

The familiar idea of “agenda setting” that was developed later on by mass communication scholars might be considered a middle range theory; for example, the notion that the media's issue agenda influences the popular issue agenda is an example of a theory focused on a narrow range of phenomena that has been clearly demonstrated by empirical research. By working on middle range problems, Merton suggested, we could gradually build up to creating more overarching theories about society. Merton has also been credited with inventing the focus group, a staple research method within media studies to this day. But perhaps most importantly, from the point of view of science communication specialists, Merton made a much more specific contribution as one of the first sociologists to analyze the social organization of science.

As a functionalist sociologist, Merton tended to see society as a collection of interrelated social institutions and professions that generally work (or function) together to meet society's various needs. Functionalism concentrates on analyzing these institutions and how they fit into the broader structure of society, rather than (more narrowly) the specific dynamics of how individuals interact or (more broadly) explanations that try to address society as a whole, such as questions of the distribution of power. It makes sense, therefore, that a functionalist should be the one to advocate for middle range empirical research. Functionalism's distinction between “manifest” and “latent” functions—meaning those that are stated and obvious versus those that are hidden, less obvious, and often unintended, generally requiring thoughtful analysis to uncover—has also been carried over into media content analysis, which generally recognizes that only some of the meanings of messages are on the surface, while others lie hidden beneath and require active interpretation and analysis to reveal.

Importantly, Merton was concerned with society's “dysfunctions” as well as its functions. Because of its assumption that the different parts of society function smoothly together, functionalism has been criticized for accepting, even implicitly supporting, the status quo social system, rather than addressing its problems. However, the idea of “dysfunctions” explicitly recognizes that not all elements of the social structure necessarily contribute to harmony, opening the door for the analysis of both social conflict and social change.

One particularly important set of institutions that Merton analyzed was the institutions of science. He may be best remembered, in this regard, for his description of the ethical principles or values that he identified as broadly shared among members of the scientific community, which he called the “ethos” of science. His interest in this aspect of the social organization of science was consistent with his more general interest in processes of socialization—that is, his concern with how people learn to become members of particular social groups and to adopt the norms and values of those groups in the process. Merton is often considered the founder of the sociology of science.

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