Military Doctrine

The fundamental policies of war of various branches of the armed services. Military doctrines never detail exact procedures or attempt to account for all possible circumstances. Instead, their purpose is to outline a broad set of objectives. Because doctrines are meant to be flexible and adaptable to different conditions, military commanders are expected to use military doctrine as a guideline in decision making and in implementing policies, procedures, strategies, and tactics.

U.S. military doctrine is based on the National Security Strategy of the United States of America, a document prepared periodically by the executive branch of government that outlines the goals of the present administration in dealing with current, pressing security concerns. The Department of Defense (DoD) is responsible for formulating joint services doctrine, whereas individual service doctrines are published by the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, the Marine Corps Doctrine Division, and the Naval Warfare Development Command.

History of Military Doctrine

The source of modern military doctrine is typically cited as Helmuth von Moltke the Elder's Instructions for Large Unit Commanders, published in 1869. Moltke, a general in the Prussian army, was educated at the [Page 463]Kriegsakademie (War College) in Berlin. At the time, the college was under the direction of Carl von Clausewitz, author of the classic military strategy text On War. In his book, Moltke stressed that only the broad strokes of military strategy could be planned beforehand. After armies met in combat, even the best-laid plans could falter.

Because of his belief that “no battle plan survives contact with the enemy,” Moltke argued that although senior officers should give general orders, the junior officers at the scene of the fighting should determine how best to carry out those orders. Such an approach was necessary to account for the more mobile nature of late–19th century combat, compared with that of an earlier era. By contrast, under the French concept of methodical battle, senior commanders gave detailed instructions for movement and tactics, which subordinates were expected to execute regardless of the situation at hand. Such an approach completely failed to account for the evolving rapidity of mechanized warfare.

Early U.S. Military Doctrine

The earliest clearly articulated U.S. military doctrine was the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, which signified the distancing of the United States from Europe and served as the basis for the later U.S. isolationism. The Monroe Doctrine was a rejection of European colonization that presumed U.S. authority over political and military affairs in the Americas.

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the isolationist stance of the United States prevented the development of an overarching military doctrine. The vague idea of Manifest Destiny—the notion that the United States was destined to spread across North America—was probably the closest substitute for U.S. military doctrine in this era. The Spanish-American War and World War I involved the United States much more in world affairs and led to the articulation of new U.S. doctrines. The Stimson Doctrine, announced by U.S. Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson in response to the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria, stated that the United States would not recognize territorial changes initiated by force.

...