Motor Learning, Practical Aspects

Motor skills are an essential part of our lives. From toddlers attempting to walk, children throwing and catching balls, young adults learning to ski, to older adults or those with physical disabilities trying to regain walking and balance capabilities—throughout our lifetime, we learn and perform motor skills. Even though motor skills vary widely in type and complexity, the learning process that individuals go through when acquiring various motor skills is similar. During the first phase (so-called cognitive stage), considerable cognitive activity and attentional capacity is required, and movements tend to be controlled in a relatively conscious manner. The result of using conscious control strategies is that the movement is relatively slow, fragmented, and inefficient and that the outcome is rather inconsistent. The second phase of learning [Page 530](associative stage) is characterized by subtle movement adjustments. The movement outcome is more reliable, and the performance is more consistent from trial to trial. Inefficient muscular co-contractions are gradually reduced, and the movement becomes more economical. In addition, at least parts of the movement are controlled more automatically. After extensive practice, the performer reaches the autonomous stage, which is characterized by fluent and seemingly effortless motions. Movements are accurate, with few or no errors, consistent, and efficient. The skill is performed largely automatically at this stage, and movement execution requires little or no attention.

How can the learning process be facilitated and individuals’ ability to perform or maintain those skills be enhanced? This is a question that interests practitioners (e.g., coaches, physical therapists, athletes, musicians) and theorists alike. Studies have identified a number of factors that influence learning. Yet, the functioning of those factors has been viewed mainly from an information processing perspective. Only recently has it become clear that the learning process is not merely the acquisition of a specific movement pattern that is facilitated by providing learners with the right information at the right time. Learning also encompasses affective reactions, the self-regulation of cognitive processes, and attentional focus to meet task demands. This is particularly relevant in the natural and almost inevitably social context of movement. Thus, both the learner's informational and motivational needs have to be optimized to enhance learning.

To help learners acquire the goal movement pattern and reach a state of automaticity, they are typically provided with demonstrations, instructions, and feedback. The following sections discuss how the effectiveness of these learning variables can be enhanced by taking into account both their informational and motivational roles. When considering learning, it is important to keep in mind that learning is assumed to reflect a relatively permanent change in a person's capability to perform motor skills. Therefore, in experimental studies, learning is typically assessed in retention or transfer tests (the latter involve a variation of the task), performed under the same conditions for all groups and at a given time interval following practice under different conditions of interest.