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War Crimes and War Criminals
War crimes are serious violations of laws and customs of war that can be committed during an internal or international armed conflict. The codification of international humanitarian law that regulates acceptable wartime conduct began at the end of the 19th century. Following the end of World War II in 1945, the Nuremberg trials established the standard for addressing war crimes. Since then, war crimes have been increasingly tried by ad hoc tribunals and international criminal justice.
In this entry, war crimes and the various codifications of war crimes are placed in historical context. Then, the concept of individual criminal responsibility for war crimes is discussed, as well as notorious war crimes and trials for war crimes. Finally, criticisms regarding prosecuting war criminals are noted.
Codification and Definition ...
- Battles, Significant Legacy
- Afghanistan, War in
- American Revolutionary War
- Amritsar, British Massacre (1919)
- Amritsar, Massacre of Sikhs (1984)
- Arab-Israeli Wars
- Balkan Wars
- Boer War
- British Empire, Wars in
- Civil War, U.S.
- Crimean War
- D-Day
- European Military Conquests, 1500–1900
- French Revolutionary Wars
- Gallipoli
- Gettysburg
- Gulf War
- Independence, Wars of
- Iran-Iraq War
- Iraq War
- Korean War
- Leningrad
- Medieval World, Wars in the
- Mexican-American War
- Napoleonic Wars
- Native American Wars
- New Zealand (Māori) Wars
- Opium Wars
- Pearl Harbor
- Revolutions of 1830
- Revolutions of 1848
- Russian Civil War
- Sarajevo, Siege of
- Six-Day War
- Soccer War
- Somme, Battle of the
- Spanish-American War
- Stalingrad
- Tet Offensive (Vietnam)
- Vietnam War
- War of 1812
- World War I
- World War II
- Wounded Knee
- Concepts and Theories
- “Long Peace”
- “New” and “Old” Wars
- Anarchism
- Animal Behavior
- Apartheid
- Appeasement
- Archaeological Perspectives on War
- Arms Races
- Arms Transfers
- Asymmetric War
- Authoritarianism
- Balance of Power
- Balance of Terror
- Biochemical Factors in Aggression and Violence
- Bullying
- Capitalism and War
- Citizen Soldiers
- Citizenship
- Civil Society
- Civil Wars
- Clan and Tribal War
- Clash of Civilizations
- Class
- Climate Change and Conflict
- Cold War
- Colonial Borders
- Colonialism, Impact of
- Communism
- Competition
- Conflict Minerals
- Containment
- Cooperation
- Correlates of War Project
- Cosmopolitanism
- Crisis
- Cultural Militarism
- Cultural Militarism, South Asia
- Dehumanizing the Enemy
- Democratic Peace Theory
- Demography
- Dependency Theory
- Deterrence
- Fascism
- Foreign Policy
- Game Theory
- Genocide
- Geopolitics
- Global War on Terror
- Globalization
- Groupthink
- Guerrilla War
- Health Security
- Human Nature
- Human Rights
- Human Security
- Humanitarian Assistance
- Idealism
- Ideology
- Imperialism
- Intractable Conflicts
- Language and Linguistic Nonviolence
- Liberal View of Peace
- Marxist Theories of War
- Mercenaries
- Migration
- Military-Industrial Complex
- Modernization
- Nation Building
- National Identity
- National Security
- Nationalism
- Nation-State
- Nazism
- Paramilitaries
- Patriotism
- Peace Theories
- Peaceful Societies
- Poverty
- Power
- Prisoner’s Dilemma
- Proliferation
- Rational Choice Theory
- Realism
- Sanitization of War
- Security Dilemma
- Settler Colonialism
- Seville Statement on Violence
- Sociobiology
- State, Concept and Formation of
- Technological Determinism
- Technology
- Territorial Disputes
- Terrorism
- Threat Perception
- Total War
- Totalitarianism
- Tragedy of the Commons
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- Warlords
- Warriors
- Water Security
- World Systems Theory
- Economics
- “New” and “Old” Wars
- Arms Transfers
- Capitalism and War
- Colonialism, Impact of
- Conflict Minerals
- Defense Budgets
- Dependency Theory
- Game Theory
- Imperialism
- Informal Economies
- Marxist Theories of War
- Militarism and Development
- Military Bases, Economics and
- Military Expenditures
- Military Keynesianism
- Military-Industrial Complex
- Oil and Security Policy
- Political Economy of War
- Poverty
- Privatization and Private-Sector Military Contractors
- Rationing and Commodity Shortages
- Resource Wars
- Shadow Economy
- Slavery and the Slave Trade
- Smuggling
- Subcontracting
- War Profiteering
- War Taxes
- World Systems Theory
- Education
- École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr (France)
- Australian Defence Force Academy
- Egyptian Military Academy
- Korean Military Academies
- Militarism in Education
- Military Schools, Secondary Level
- National Defense Academy of Japan
- Peace Education
- Royal Military Academy of Belgium
- Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst
- Royal Military College of Canada
- Social Learning
- The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina
- U.S. Air Force Academy
- U.S. Air War College
- U.S. Army War College
- U.S. Coast Guard Academy
- U.S. Merchant Marine Academy
- U.S. Military Academy
- U.S. National Defense University
- U.S. Naval Academy
- U.S. Naval War College
- Virginia Military Institute
- Environment
- Agent Orange
- Biological Weapons
- Chemical and Biological War
- Climate Change and Conflict
- Depleted Uranium Weapons
- Ecological Causes of War
- Energy Security
- Environmental Destruction and War
- Environmental Security
- Famine
- Food Security
- Gulf War Syndrome
- Health Consequences of War
- Nuclear Weapons, Environmental Impact of Building
- Nuclear Winter
- Oil, Military Use of
- Uranium Mining
- Water Security
- Gender
- “Comfort Women” (Sex Slaves) in World War II
- “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”
- Camp Followers
- Combat Ban
- Dahomey Women Warriors
- Feminist Understandings of War
- Gendering of War
- Homosexuality and the Military
- Hypermasculinity
- Military Bases, Gender at
- Military Families, Stresses on
- Military Sexual Trauma
- Prostitution
- Rape as a Weapon of War
- Rosie the Riveter
- Sexual Minorities and War
- Sexual Violence
- Women and National Liberation Movements
- Women and Peacekeeping
- Women and the U.S. Military
- Women as Victims of War
- Women Warriors
- Media
- “Living Room War”
- Al Jazeera
- Band of Brothers
- Blogs
- Censorship
- CNN Effect
- Documentaries
- Embedded Reporters
- Leaks
- Media Access
- Media and Dissent
- Media and War
- Media Briefings and Releases
- Newsreels
- Propaganda, Perception Management and
- Social Media
- Television Coverage
- War Correspondents
- War Movies
- War Photography
- War Poetry
- War Posters
- WikiLeaks
- Memory Sites
- Hibakusha (Atomic Bomb Survivors)
- Abu Ghraib
- Alamo, the
- Allende, Salvador, Overthrow of
- Amritsar, British Massacre (1919)
- Amritsar, Massacre of Sikhs (1984)
- Arlington National Cemetery
- Armistice Day
- Bay of Pigs
- Berlin Wall
- Bloody Sunday (Derry, Northern Ireland)
- Cemeteries
- Christmas Truce (1914)
- Cuban Missile Crisis
- D-Day
- Dirty War (Argentina)
- Extermination Camps, World War II
- Gallipoli
- Gettysburg
- Greece, Ancient, Wars in
- Guantánamo Bay
- Guernica
- Hiroshima and Nagasaki
- Holocaust
- Leningrad
- Long March, the (China)
- Memorials and Monuments
- Mumbai, India, Terrorist Attack
- My Lai
- Nanjing Massacre
- Nobel Peace Prize
- Parades, Role of
- Partition of India
- Peace Museums
- Pearl Harbor
- Plaza de Mayo
- Pogroms
- Sarajevo, Siege of
- September 11, 2001
- Sharpeville, South Africa: Protests and Shootings
- Soccer War
- Somme, Battle of the
- Srebrenica
- Stalingrad
- Tet Offensive (Vietnam)
- Truth and Reconciliation Commissions
- Unknown Soldiers
- War Crime Tribunals
- War Crimes and War Criminals
- War Museums
- Wounded Knee
- Yasukuni Shrine
- Multiple Impacts of War
- “Comfort Women” (Sex Slaves) in World War II
- Hibakusha (Atomic Bomb Survivors)
- Abu Ghraib
- Animals (Use in War)
- Atrocities in Wartime
- Biological Weapons
- Casualties
- Censorship
- Chemical and Biological War
- Chemical Weapons
- Child Soldiers, Use of
- Children, Impact of War on
- Civil Liberties and Civil Rights During Wartime
- Civilian Populations in War Zones
- Collateral Damage
- Combat Exhilaration and Combat Addiction
- Combat Trauma and Fatigue
- Crimes Against Humanity
- Depleted Uranium Weapons
- Doublespeak
- Emotional Withdrawal
- Extermination Camps, World War II
- Famine
- Genocide
- Guantánamo Bay
- Gulf War Syndrome
- Health Consequences of War
- Holocaust
- Horror of Combat
- Human Rights Violations and Protections
- Landmines
- Military Sexual Trauma
- Nuclear Weapons, Effects
- Nuclear Winter
- Pogroms
- Refugees and Refugee Reintegration
- Sexual Minorities and War
- Sexual Violence
- Soldier Suicides
- Unknown Soldiers
- Victims
- Women as Victims of War
- Nations
- Afghanistan
- Albania
- Algeria
- Allende, Salvador, Overthrow of
- Angola
- Apartheid
- Argentina
- Armenia
- Australia
- Austria
- Bahamas
- Bahrain
- Balkan Wars
- Bangladesh
- Barbados
- Bay of Pigs
- Belarus
- Belgium
- Belize
- Benin
- Berlin Wall
- Bhutan
- Bloody Sunday (Derry, Northern Ireland)
- Boer War
- Bolivia
- Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Botswana
- Brazil
- Brunei Darussalam
- Bulgaria
- Burkina Faso
- Burundi
- Cambodia
- Cameroon
- Canada
- Cape Verde
- Central African Republic
- Chad
- Chile
- China
- Civil War, U.S.
- Colombia
- Congo, Democratic Republic of the
- Congo, Republic of
- Costa Rica
- Croatia
- Cuba
- Cuban Missile Crisis
- Cultural Militarism, South Asia
- Cyprus
- Czech Republic
- Dahomey Women Warriors
- Denmark
- Dirty War (Argentina)
- Djibouti
- Dominican Republic
- Ecuador
- Egypt
- El Salvador
- Equatorial Guinea
- Eritrea
- Estonia
- Ethiopia
- European Union
- Federal Armed Forces Universities (Germany)
- Fiji
- Finland
- France
- Gambia
- Geography of War: Africa, North
- Geography of War: Africa, Sub-Saharan
- Geography of War: Asia, East
- Geography of War: Asia, South
- Geography of War: Asia, Southeast
- Geography of War: Europe, Eastern
- Geography of War: Europe, Western
- Geography of War: South America
- Georgia
- Germany
- Ghana
- Greece, Ancient, Wars in
- Greece, Modern
- Grenada
- Guatemala
- Guinea
- Guinea-Bissau
- Guyana
- Haiti
- Honduras
- Hungary
- Iceland
- India
- Indonesia
- Iran
- Iraq
- Ireland
- Israel
- Italy
- Jamaica
- Japan
- Jordan
- Kazakhstan
- Kenya
- Kiribati
- Kosovo
- Kuwait
- Kyrgyzstan
- Latvia
- Lebanon
- Lesotho
- Liberia
- Libya
- Liechtenstein
- Lithuania
- Luxembourg
- Macedonia
- Madagascar
- Malaysia
- Maldives
- Mali
- Malta
- Marshall Islands
- Mauritania
- Mauritius
- Mexico
- Micronesia
- Mongolia
- Morocco
- Mozambique
- Myanmar
- Namibia
- Nepal
- Netherlands
- New Zealand
- Nicaragua
- Niger
- Nigeria
- North Korea
- Norway
- Oman
- Ottoman Empire
- Pakistan
- Palau
- Palestine
- Panama
- Papua New Guinea
- Paraguay
- Partition of India
- Peru
- Philippines
- Poland
- Portugal
- Qatar
- Roman Empire
- Romania
- Russia
- Rwanda
- São Tomé and Príncipe
- Saint Kitts and Nevis
- Samoa
- San Marino
- Saudi Arabia
- Senegal
- Serbia and Montenegro
- Seychelles
- Sierra Leone
- Singapore
- Solomon Islands
- Somalia
- South Africa
- South Sudan
- Space
- Spain
- Sri Lanka
- Sudan
- Suriname
- Swaziland
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- Syria
- Tajikistan
- Tanzania
- Thailand
- Timor Leste
- Trinidad and Tobago
- Tunisia
- Turkey
- Turkmenistan
- Tuvalu
- Uganda
- Ukraine
- United Arab Emirates
- United Kingdom
- United States
- Uruguay
- Uzbekistan
- Vanuatu
- Venezuela
- Vietnam
- Yemen
- Zambia
- Zimbabwe
- Opposition and Resistance
- Organizations
- Al Qaeda
- Central Intelligence Agency
- Homeland Security
- Human Rights Watch
- Human Terrain System
- International Criminal Court
- Military Junta
- Minerva Research Initiative
- National Security Agency
- Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)
- North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- Pentagon Building
- Project Camelot
- Regional Organizations
- ROTC
- Secretary-General of the United Nations
- Security Council
- U.S. Department of Defense
- U.S. Department of State
- United Nations
- Veterans of Foreign Wars
- Preventing and Managing Conflict
- “Long Peace”
- Alternative Defense
- Balance of Power
- Chemical and Biological Weapons, Abolition of
- Conflict Resolution Systems
- Containment
- Cooperation
- Democratic Peace Theory
- Deterrence
- Diplomacy
- Disarmament
- Human Rights
- Human Security
- International Criminal Court
- International Law and International Courts
- Liberal View of Peace
- National Security
- Nobel Peace Prize
- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
- Nuclear Weapons, Abolition of
- Peace Theories
- Peacekeeping
- Realism
- Responsibility to Protect (R2P)
- Safe Havens
- Sanctions
- Seville Statement on Violence
- Structural Violence
- Track II Diplomacy
- Psychology
- Aggression
- Altruism
- Animal Behavior
- Attribution Error
- Biochemical Factors in Aggression and Violence
- Cognitive Dissonance
- Combat Exhilaration and Combat Addiction
- Combat Trauma and Fatigue
- Dehumanizing the Enemy
- Desensitization
- Distance Effect
- Emotional Withdrawal
- Emotions
- Empathy
- Enemy Making
- Evil
- Evolutionary Psychology
- Fear of War
- Fight-or-Flight Response
- Group Absolution
- Groupthink
- Guilt and Remorse
- Hate
- Honor
- Horror of Combat
- Killing, Burden of
- Killing, Societal Fascination With
- Milgram Experiments
- Military Families, Stresses on
- Morality
- Operant Conditioning
- Peer Pressure
- Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
- Psychological Warfare
- Psychopaths and Sociopaths in Wartime
- Punishment
- Rationalization and Acceptance
- Revenge
- Sanitization of War
- Soldier Suicides
- Stockholm Syndrome
- Testosterone
- Recovery and Reconciliation
- Religious Traditions
- Al Qaeda
- Anabaptists
- Anglicanism
- Bahá’í Faith
- Baptists
- Bible
- Buddhism
- Catholicism, Roman
- Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)
- Confucianism
- Eastern Orthodox Church
- God
- Hinduism
- Islam, Shiite
- Islam, Sunni
- Jainism
- Jihad
- Judaism
- Lutheranism
- Mennonites
- Methodists
- Peace Church
- Pentecostalism
- Presbyterianism and Congregationalism
- Religion and War
- Religious Society of Friends (Quakers)
- Salafism and Wahhabism
- Shintoism
- Sikhism
- Sufism
- Unitarian Universalism
- Social Identities
- Sociology and Anthropology
- War, Conduct of
- Authorization to Use Military Force
- Chain of Command
- Chemical Weapons
- Citizen Soldiers
- Command and Control
- Conscription and Mobilization of Soldiers
- Counterinsurgency
- Covert Operations
- Cyber Espionage
- Cyberterrorism
- Dead, Treatment of
- Declaration of War
- Demobilization
- Disinformation
- Drones
- Intent in War
- Interservice Rivalries
- Jamming Signals
- Just War
- Military Bases, Politics and
- Military Courts and Tribunals
- Military Geography
- Military Policing
- Military Recruitment Advertising
- Military Recruitment Strategies
- Morality
- Multilateral Forces
- Political Will for War
- Prisoners of War, Treatment of
- Privatization and Private-Sector Military Contractors
- Professional Military Forces
- Psychological Warfare
- Psychopaths and Sociopaths in Wartime
- Revolution in Military Affairs
- Rules of Engagement
- Small Arms
- Smuggling
- Stealth Technology
- Strategic Bombing
- Suicide Bombers
- Surveillance
- Surveillance: Nazi Germany
- Torture
- Uniform Code of Military Justice
- Violence, Second-Order Effects
- War Crimes and War Criminals
- Women Warriors
- Wounded, Treatment of
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