- Entry
- Reader's guide
- Entries A-Z
- Subject index
Fetal Programming of Gender
Human gender development begins before birth. Sex chromosomes and sex hormones are the two major sources of prenatal influence on lifelong neurobehavioral gender phenotypes. Differential expression of genes during the embryonic stage of life begins the processes by which sex differences develop. Variation in exposure to prenatal hormones, particularly testosterone, is an important contributor to behavioral and cognitive differences between the sexes, as well as an important explanatory factor for why certain individuals are more sex typical than others. In addition, males and females adjust their neurobehavioral developmental trajectories differentially in response to the same signals.
Biology of Sex
In all mammals, including humans, the first stage of gender development is conception, which in nonpathological conditions results in a genome that includes two X chromosomes (genetic female) ...
- Adolescence
- Abstinence in Adolescence
- Adolescence and Gender: Overview
- Attraction
- Body Image and Adolescence
- Bullying in Adolescence
- Bullying, Gender-Based
- Coming Out Processes for LGBTQ Youth
- Cyberbullying
- Disability and Adolescence
- Emotions in Adolescence and Gender
- Family Relationships in Adolescence
- Friendships in Adolescence
- Gender Identity and Adolescence
- Gender Marginality in Adolescence
- Gender Norms and Adolescence
- Gender Socialization in Adolescence
- Gendered Behaviors in Adolescence
- Identity Formation in Adolescence
- Masculinity in Adolescence
- Peer Pressure in Adolescence
- Puberty Suppression
- Role Models and Gender
- Romantic Relationships in Adolescence
- Safe Sex and Adolescence
- Sexual Assault, Adolescent Survivors of
- Sexuality and Adolescence
- Teen Fathers
- Teen Mothers
- Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Adolescents
- Aging
- Ageism
- Aging and Gender: Overview
- Aging and Mental Health
- Body Image and Aging
- Brain Lateralization
- Caretakers, Experiences of
- Community and Aging
- Disability and Aging
- End-of-Life and Existential Issues
- Gender Socialization in Aging
- Identity Development and Aging
- Isolation and Aging
- Late Adulthood and Gender
- Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Experiences of Aging
- LGBQ Older Adults and Health
- Long-Term Care
- Men and Aging
- Menopause
- Middle Adulthood and Gender
- Sexuality and Aging
- Stigma of Aging
- Transgender Experiences of Aging
- Women and Aging
- Biological Sex Differences
- Biological Sex and Cognitive Development
- Biological Sex and Health Outcomes
- Biological Sex and Language and Communication
- Biological Sex and Mental Health Outcomes
- Biological Sex and Social Development
- Biological Sex and the Brain
- Biological Sex Differences: Overview
- Cognitive Disorders in Men
- Cognitive Disorders in Women
- Evolutionary Sex Differences
- Gender Versus Sex
- Intersex
- Neurofeminism
- Neurosexism
- Orgasm, Psychological Issues Relating to
- Turner Syndrome
- Childhood
- Behavioral Disorders and Gender
- Bullying in Childhood
- Child Adoption and Gender
- Child Neglect
- Child Play
- Childhood and Gender: Overview
- Children With LGBTQ Parents
- Children With Transgender Parents
- Children’s Cognitive Development
- Children’s Moral Development
- Children’s Social-Emotional Development
- Disability and Childhood
- Gender Identity and Childhood
- Gender Self-Socialization
- Gender Socialization in Childhood
- Gender Variant Role Expression in Childhood
- Gendered Stereotyped Behaviors in Childhood
- Identity Formation in Childhood
- Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Children
- Nature Versus Nurture
- Parental Expectations
- Parental Messages About Gender
- Parental Stressors
- Parenting Styles, Gender Differences in
- Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Gender Differences in Children
- Pretend Play
- Sexual Assault, Child Survivors of
- Transgender Children
- Developmental and Biological Processes
- Asexuality
- Biopsychology
- Bisexual Identity Development
- Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
- Developmental and Biological Processes: Overview
- Fetal Programming of Gender
- Fetal Sex Selection
- Gay Male Identity Development
- Gender Development, Theories of
- Gendered Behavior
- Inferiority Complex
- Internalized Heterosexism
- Internalized Sexism
- Internalized Transphobia
- Lesbian Identity Development
- Masturbation
- Psychosexual Development
- Puberty
- Sexual Desire
- Sexual Orientation Identity Development
- Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Identity Development
- Education
- Abstinence-Only Education
- Career Choice and Gender
- Career Choice and Sexual Orientation
- Comprehensive Sexuality Education
- Education and Gender: Overview
- Ethics of Self-Care for Psychologists
- Gender Balance in Education
- Gender Bias in Education
- Gender Studies in Higher Education
- Gender Studies in K-12 Education
- Gender Tracking in Education
- Impostor Syndrome
- Men’s Studies
- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy and Gender
- Sex Education in Schools
- STEM Fields and Gender
- Stereotype Threat in Education
- Teacher Bias
- Transgender Studies
- Women’s Studies
- Feminism
- Gender and Society
- Ambivalent Sexism
- Anti-Feminist Backlash
- Benevolent Sexism
- Body Modification
- Breastfeeding
- Criminal Justice System and Gender
- Criminal Justice System and Sexual Orientation
- Criminal Justice System and Transgender People
- Division of Domestic Labor
- Fat Shaming
- Fatherhood
- Fraternities
- Gender and Society: Overview
- Gender Equality
- Gender Role Behavior
- Gender Segregation
- Gender Stereotypes
- Government and Gender
- Heteronormativity
- Heterosexism
- Homophobia
- Homosexuality
- Hostile Sexism
- Human Rights
- Institutional Sexism
- Juvenile Justice System and Gender
- Legal System and Gender
- Marriage
- Matriarchy
- Media and Gender
- Microaggressions
- Military and Gender
- Motherhood
- Patriarchy
- Pornography and Gender
- Race and Gender
- Reproductive Rights Movement
- Romantic Relationships in Adulthood
- Sex Culture
- Sex Work
- Sexism
- Sexism, Psychological Consequences for Men
- Sexism, Psychological Consequences for Women
- Sexual Identity
- Sexual Orientation Identity
- Sexuality and Social Media
- Social Role Theory
- Sodomy Laws
- Sororities
- Sports and Gender
- Stalking
- Stereotype Threat and Gender
- Street Harassment
- Subtle Sexism
- Transgender People
- Vicarious Sexism
- Voting and Gender
- Gender Nonconformity and Transgender Issues
- Androgyny
- Bi-Gender
- Cisgender
- Cissexism
- Coming Out Processes for Transgender People
- Criminal Justice System and Transgender People
- Criminalization of Gender Nonconformity
- Doing Gender
- Gender Affirming Medical Treatments
- Gender Dysphoria
- Gender Expression
- Gender Fluidity
- Gender Identity
- Gender Identity Disorder, History of
- Gender Nonconforming Behaviors
- Gender Nonconforming People
- Gender Nonconformity and Transgender Issues: Overview
- Gender Pronouns
- Gender Role Socialization
- Genderqueer
- Passing
- Pathologizing Gender Identity
- Physical Assault, Transgender Survivors of
- Third Gender
- Trans*
- Transgender People
- Transgender People and Dating
- Transgender People and Health Disparities
- Transgender People and Resilience
- Transgender People and Romantic Relationships
- Transphobia
- Transsexual
- Transvestic Fetishism
- Two-Spirited People
- Gender Roles
- Butch
- Cultural Gender Role Norms
- Femininity
- Femme
- Gay Men and Gender Roles
- Gender Conformity
- Gender Role Behavior
- Gender Role Conflict
- Gender Role Socialization
- Gender Role Strain Paradigm
- Gender Role Stress
- Gender Roles: Overview
- Gender Stereotypes
- Gendered Behavior
- Gendered Behaviors in Adolescence
- Gendered Stereotyped Behaviors in Childhood
- Gendered Stereotyped Behaviors in Men
- Gendered Stereotyped Behaviors in Women
- Lesbians and Dating
- Lesbians and Gender Roles
- Masculinity Gender Norms
- Health Issues and Gender
- Abortion
- Abstinence
- Assisted Reproduction and Alternative Families
- Body Image
- Contraception
- Eating Disorders and Gender
- Egg Donation
- Estrogen
- Gender Reaffirming Surgeries
- Health at Every Size
- Health Issues and Gender: Overview
- HIV/AIDS
- Hormone Replacement Therapy for Cisgender Men and Women
- Hormone Therapy for Transgender People
- Hysterectomy
- In Vitro Fertilization
- Infertility
- Intimacy
- Low Testosterone
- Menopause
- Menstruation
- Orgasm, Psychological Issues Relating to
- Perimenopause
- Pregnancy
- Reproductive Cancer and Mental Health in Men
- Reproductive Cancer and Mental Health in Women
- Safe Sex
- Sex Education
- Sexual Dysfunction
- Sexually Transmitted Diseases
- Sperm Donor
- Substance Use and Gender
- Surrogacy
- Teaching Human Sexuality
- Testosterone
- Men’s Issues
- Alexithymia
- Androcentrism
- Body Image Issues and Men
- Competition and Gender
- Depression and Men
- Fatherhood
- Fraternities
- Gay Men and Dating
- Gay Men and Feminism
- Gay Men and Health
- Gay Men and Romantic Relationships
- Gender Role Conflict
- Gender Role Strain Paradigm
- Gender Role Stress
- Gender Socialization in Men
- Gendered Stereotyped Behaviors in Men
- Hegemonic Masculinity
- Help-Seeking Behaviors and Men
- Heterosexual Male Identity Development
- Heterosexual Male Relationships
- Heterosexual Men and Dating
- Heterosexual Men and Feminism
- Heterosexual Romantic Relationships
- Male Privilege
- Masculinities
- Masculinity Gender Norms
- Masculinity Ideology and Norms
- Masculinity Threats
- Men and Aging
- Men’s Friendships
- Men’s Group Therapy
- Men’s Health
- Men’s Issues: Overview
- Physical Assault, Male Survivors of
- Sexism, Psychological Consequences for Men
- Sexual Assault, Male Survivors of
- Sexuality and Men
- Mental Health and Gender
- Agoraphobia and Gender
- Alcoholism and Gender
- Anorexia and Gender
- Antisocial Personality Disorder and Gender
- Anti-Trans Bias in the DSM
- Anxiety Disorders and Gender
- Assisted Suicide, Euthanasia, and Gender
- Avoidant Personality Disorder and Gender
- Behavioral Disorders and Gender
- Bipolar Disorder and Gender
- Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Gender
- Borderline Personality Disorder and Gender
- Bulimia and Gender
- Delusional Disorder and Gender
- Dependent Personality Disorder and Gender
- Depression and Gender
- Discursive Approaches
- Dissociative Disorders and Gender
- Dual Diagnosis and Gender
- Exhibitionism and Gender
- Fetishism and Gender
- Frotteurism and Gender
- Gambling and Gender
- Gender Bias in the DSM
- Gender Dysphoria
- Gender Identity Disorder, History of
- Grieving and Gender
- Heterosexist Bias in the DSM
- Histrionic Personality Disorder and Gender
- Hypochondriasis and Gender
- Identity Construction
- Intermittent Explosive Disorder and Gender
- Mania and Gender
- Mental Health and Gender: Overview
- Mental Health Stigma and Gender
- Narcissistic Personality Disorder and Gender
- Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Gender
- Panic Disorder and Gender
- Pedophilia and Gender
- Personality Disorders and Gender Bias
- Postpartum Depression
- Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Gender
- Psychopathy and Gender
- Schizoid Personality Disorder and Gender
- Schizophrenia and Gender
- Self-Injury and Gender
- Sexual Disorders and Gender
- Sexual Orientation Disturbance, History of
- Sleep Disorders and Gender
- Sleep Disorders and LGBTQ People
- Social Anxiety Disorder and Gender
- Somatization Disorder and Gender
- Suicide and Gender
- Suicide and Sexual Orientation
- Voyeurism and Gender
- Multiculturalism and Gender
- Marianismo
- Ability Status and Gender
- Ability Status and Sexual Orientation
- Allies
- Arab Americans and Gender
- Arab Americans and Sexual Orientation
- Arab Americans and Transgender Identity
- Asian Americans and Gender
- Asian Americans and Sexual Orientation
- Asian Americans and Transgender Identity
- Biculturalism and Gender
- Biculturalism and Sexual Orientation
- Biculturalism and Transgender
- Bisexuality
- Black Americans and Gender
- Black Americans and Sexual Orientation
- Black Americans and Transgender Identity
- Buddhism and Gender
- Buddhism and Sexual Orientation
- Bystanders
- Christianity and Gender
- Christianity and Sexual Orientation
- Colonialism and Gender
- Criminalization of Men of Color
- Criminalization of Transgender People
- Cross-Cultural Differences in Gender
- Cultural Gender Role Norms
- Dual Minority Status
- Exoticization of LGBTQ People of Color
- Exoticization of Women of Color
- Gay Men
- Immigration and Gender
- Immigration and Sexualities
- Immigration and Transgender Identity
- Intersectional Identities
- Islam and Gender
- Islam and Sexual Orientation
- Judaism and Gender
- Judaism and Sexual Orientation
- Latina/o Americans and Gender
- Latina/o Americans and Sexual Orientation
- Latina/o Americans and Transgender Identity
- Lesbians
- LGBTQ Community, Experiences of Transgender People in
- LGBTQ Community, Gender Dynamics in
- LGBTQ People of Color and Discrimination
- Machismo
- Minority Stress
- Multiculturalism and Gender: Overview
- Multiracial People and Gender
- Multiracial People and Sexual Orientation
- Multiracial People and Transgender Identity
- Native Americans and Gender
- Native Americans and Transgender Identity
- Pacific Islanders and Gender
- Pacific Islanders and Sexual Orientation
- Pansexuality
- Queer
- Queerness
- Racial Discrimination, Gender-Based
- Social Class and Gender
- Social Class and Sexual Orientation
- Socioeconomic Status and Gender
- Spirituality and Gender
- Spirituality and Sexual Orientation
- Superwoman Complex
- Superwoman Squeeze
- Transgender People
- White/European Americans and Gender
- White/European Americans and Sexual Orientation
- White/European Americans and Transgender Identity
- Women of Color and Discrimination
- Worldviews and Gender Research
- Research
- Bem Sex Role Inventory
- Ethics in Gender Research
- Gender Bias in Research
- Gender-Biased Language in Research
- Heteronormative Bias in Research
- Kinsey Reports
- Kinsey Scale, The
- Measuring Gender
- Measuring Gender Identity
- Measuring Gender Roles
- Measuring Sexual Orientation
- Psychological Measurements, Gender Bias in
- Psychological Measurements, Sexual Orientation Bias in
- Reliability and Gender
- Research Methodology and Gender
- Research: Overview
- Sampling Bias and Gender
- Sexual Orientation as Research Variable
- Transgender Research, Bias in
- Validity and Gender
- Women in STEM Fields, Experiences of
- Sexual Orientation
- Arab Americans and Sexual Orientation
- Asexuality
- Asian Americans and Sexual Orientation
- Biculturalism and Sexual Orientation
- Biphobia
- Bisexual Identity Development
- Bisexuality
- Buddhism and Sexual Orientation
- Children With LGBTQ Parents
- Christianity and Sexual Orientation
- Coming Out Processes for LGBTQ Youth
- Criminal Justice System and Sexual Orientation
- Gay Male Identity Development
- Gay Men
- Gay Men and Health
- Heterosexual Male Identity Development
- Heterosexual Privilege
- Heterosexuality
- Homosexuality
- Immigration and Sexualities
- Internalized Heterosexism
- Islam and Sexual Orientation
- Judaism and Sexual Orientation
- Latina/o Americans and Sexual Orientation
- Lesbian Identity Development
- Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Children
- Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Experiences of Aging
- Lesbians
- Lesbians and Health
- LGBTQ Athletes, Experiences of
- Marriage Equality
- Measuring Sexual Orientation
- Multiracial People and Sexual Orientation
- Pacific Islanders and Sexual Orientation
- Pansexuality
- Passing
- Psychological Measurements, Sexual Orientation Bias in
- Queer
- Queerness
- Racial Discrimination, Sexual Orientation–Based
- Sexual Identity
- Sexual Orientation as Research Variable
- Sexual Orientation Identity
- Sexual Orientation Identity Development
- Sexual Orientation: Overview
- Social Class and Sexual Orientation
- Spirituality and Sexual Orientation
- White/European Americans and Sexual Orientation
- Theories and Therapeutic Approaches
- Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
- Adlerian Theories of Gender Development
- Behavioral Approaches and Gender
- Behavioral Theories of Gender Development
- Biological Theories of Gender Development
- Cognitive Approaches and Gender
- Cognitive Theories of Gender Development
- Couples Therapy With Heterosexual Couples
- Couples Therapy With Same-Sex Couples
- Cross-Cultural Models or Approaches to Gender
- Cultural Competence
- Dialectical Behavior Therapy and Gender
- Ethics in Psychotherapy and Gender
- Existential Approaches and Gender
- Existential Theories of Gender Development
- Feminist Therapy
- Gender Dynamics in Clinical Supervision
- Gender Dynamics in Clinical Training
- Gender Dynamics in Group Therapy
- Gender Dynamics in Psychotherapy
- Gender Self-Socialization Model
- Gilligan’s Moral Development Theory
- Humanistic Approaches and Gender
- Humanistic Theories of Gender Development
- International Perspectives on Women’s Mental Health
- Interpersonal Therapies and Gender
- Intersectional Theories
- Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
- LGBTQQ-Affirmative Psychotherapy
- Psychoanalytic Approaches and Gender
- Psychoanalytic Feminism
- Psychodynamic Approaches and Gender
- Psychodynamic Feminism
- Psychodynamic Theories of Gender Development
- Sexual Orientation Change Efforts
- Sexual Orientation Dynamics in Clinical Supervision
- Sexual Orientation Dynamics in Clinical Training
- Sexual Orientation Dynamics in Group Therapy
- Sexual Orientation Dynamics in Psychotherapy
- Sociodramatic Play/Role-Play
- Theories and Therapeutic Approaches: Overview
- Women’s Group Therapy
- Violence and Gender
- Acquaintance Rape
- Campus Rape
- Cycles of Abuse
- Date Rape
- Emotional Abuse
- Female Sex Offenders
- Gender-Based Violence
- Gender-Based Violence in Athletics
- Gender-Based Violence in the Media
- Hate Crimes Toward LGBTQ People
- Intimate Partner Violence
- Intimate Partner Violence in Same-Sex Couples
- Military Sexual Trauma
- Misogyny
- Perpetrators of Violence
- Physical Abuse
- Physical Assault, Female Survivors of
- Physical Assault, Male Survivors of
- Physical Assault, Transgender Survivors of
- Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Gender Violence
- Power-Control and Gender
- Psychological Abuse
- Rape
- Rape Culture
- Revictimization
- Sexual Abuse
- Sexual Assault
- Sexual Assault, Adolescent Survivors of
- Sexual Assault, Child Survivors of
- Sexual Assault, Female Survivors of
- Sexual Assault, Male Survivors of
- Sexual Assault, Survivors of
- Sexual Coercion
- Sexual Offenders
- Slut Shaming
- Spousal Rape
- Stalking
- Stranger Rape
- Take Back the Night
- Transgender Day of Action
- Transgender Day of Remembrance
- Transgender People and Violence
- Transmisogyny
- Vicarious Trauma
- Victim Blaming
- Violence Against Women Act
- Violence and Gender: Overview
- Women’s Issues
- Body Image Issues and Women
- Body Objectification
- Depression and Women
- Femininity
- Feminist Identity Development Model
- Gender Discrimination
- Gender Role Behavior
- Gender Socialization in Women
- Gendered Stereotyped Behaviors in Women
- Help-Seeking Behaviors and Women
- Heterosexual Romantic Relationships
- Heterosexual Women and Dating
- Inferiority Complex
- Internalized Sexism
- Lesbians and Dating
- Lesbians and Health
- Lesbians and Romantic Relationships
- Motherhood
- Physical Assault, Female Survivors of
- Sexism
- Sexism, Psychological Consequences for Women
- Sexual Assault, Female Survivors of
- Sexual Harassment
- Sexuality and Women
- Street Harassment
- Women and Aging
- Women’s Friendships
- Women’s Groups
- Women’s Health
- Women’s Issues: Overview
- Womyn
- The Workplace and Gender
- Affirmative Action
- Domestic Care Industry and Women
- Equal Employment Opportunity
- Equal Pay for Equal Work
- Gender Bias in Hiring Practices
- Gender Discrimination
- Gender Microinequities
- Gendered Organizations
- Labor Movement and Women
- Pregnancy Discrimination
- Sex Work
- Sexual Harassment
- Title IX
- Women and Leadership
- Women Athletes, Experiences of
- Women Coaches, Experiences of
- Women in Academia, Experiences of
- Women in Corporate Positions, Experiences of
- Women in Government, Experiences of
- Women in Public Safety, Experiences of
- Women in Religious Leadership, Experiences of
- Women in STEM Fields, Experiences of
- Women in the Military, Experiences of
- Women Leaders in Political Movements, Experiences of
- Workplace and Gender: Overview
- Workplace Sexual Harassment
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