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Incarceration Rates, U.S.
Rates of incarceration in U.S. prisons and jails are key statistics used to compare different jurisdictions, to assess the status of particular groups in the system, and to understand the impact of changes on correctional laws, policies, and practices. This entry addresses rates of incarceration, specifically how rates are calculated and interpreted; long-term trends in U.S. incarceration rates; rates by gender, race, and ethnicity; international rates; what causes rates to change; and policy reforms that might reduce rates of incarceration.
Rates Explained
Inmate counts can fluctuate along with the general population. To enable analysis of other system and societal factors in the number incarcerated, rates are used to standardize differences in population over time or across different states or countries. Rates are calculated by dividing the incarcerated ...
- Biases in Crime Policies and Prevention
- Crime Policies
- Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act of 2006
- America’s Missing: Broadcast Emergency Response (AMBER) Alert
- Community Notification Policies
- Cost-Effectiveness of Rehabilitation Versus Incarceration
- Crime Prevention, Policies of
- Faith-Based Initiatives
- Mandatory Minimum Sentencing
- Megan’s Law
- Mental Health Courts
- Native American Tribal Courts
- Older Victims of Crime
- Public Offender Registries
- Sexual Offender Registries
- Sexual Offenders, Public Perception of
- Sexually Violent Predator Laws
- Specialty Courts
- Therapeutic Jurisprudence and Problem-Solving Courts
- Three Strikes Laws
- Veterans Courts
- Victim Assistance Programs and Legislation
- Victims of Crime
- Witness Protection Programs
- Criminal Justice Legal Processes
- Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
- Coerced Confessions
- Community Policing and Crisis Intervention Team Model
- Confessions
- Correctional Boot Camps
- Corrections
- Courts, Federal
- Courts, International
- Courts, State
- Criminal Charges, Federal
- Criminal Profiling
- Crisis Intervention Teams
- Dangerous Offender Legislation
- Death Penalty
- Domestic Violence Courts
- Drug Courts
- Eyewitness Testimony
- Forensic Applications in the Criminal Justice System
- Hostage Negotiation
- Investigative Psychology
- Jail Diversion
- Jails
- Lie Detection
- Mental Health Courts
- Mitigation
- Native American Tribal Courts
- Parole
- Plea Negotiations
- Police Interrogations
- Police Lineups, Psychology of
- Police Misconduct and Corruption
- Police Officer Evaluations: Suitability for Hire and Fitness for Duty
- Police Response to People With Mental Illness
- Police Suicide
- Policing
- Preventive Detention Legislation
- Prisons
- Probation
- Probation, Specialized
- Prosecutorial Discretion
- Psychological Autopsy
- Racial Profiling
- Restorative Policing
- Sentencing
- Shock Incarceration
- Showup Identifications
- Specialty Courts
- Structured Interviews in Law Enforcement Selection Process
- Therapeutic Jurisprudence and Problem-Solving Courts
- Trials, Criminal
- Undercover Policing
- Veterans Courts
- Wrongful Convictions
- International Perspectives
- Offender Assessment Criminal Risk Assessment and Recidivism Prediction
- Criminal Risk Assessment, Clinical Judgment of
- Criminal Risk Assessment, Combined Static and Dynamic Approaches to
- Criminal Risk Assessment, Domestic Violence
- Criminal Risk Assessment, Gender-Responsive
- Criminal Risk Assessment, General Offending
- Criminal Risk Assessment, Generations of
- Criminal Risk Assessment, Juvenile Offending
- Criminal Risk Assessment, Psychopathy
- Criminal Risk Assessment, Sexual Offending
- Criminal Risk Assessment, Stalking
- Criminal Risk Assessment, Structured Professional Judgment of
- Criminal Risk Assessment, Violence
- Estimate of Risk of Adolescent Sexual Offense Recidivism (ERASOR)
- Historical-Clinical Risk Management-20 (HCR-20)
- Juvenile Sex Offender Recidivism Risk Assessment Tool-II (JSORRAT-II)
- Juvenile Sex Offender Risk Assessment Protocol-II (J-SOAP-II)
- Juvenile Sex Offenders: Assessment
- Level of Service Inventory (LSI)
- Level of Service Inventory-Revised (LSI-R)
- Level of Service Inventory-Self Report (LSI-SR)
- Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (LS/CMI)
- Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool–Revised (MnSOST-R)
- Offender Group Reconviction Scale (OGRS)
- Ontario Domestic Assault Risk Assessment (ODARA)
- Psychopathic Personality Inventory–Revised (PPI-R)
- Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (PCL-R) and the Psychopathy Checklist Screening Version (PCL:SV)
- Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV)
- Risk Assessment, Actuarial
- Risk Matrix 2000
- Screening Assessment for Stalking and Harassment (SASH)
- Self-Appraisal Questionnaire (SAQ)
- Self-Report Measures of Psychopathy
- Self-Report Psychopathy (SRP)
- Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (SORAG)
- Sex Offender Treatment Intervention and Progress Scale (SOTIPS)
- Sexual Violence Risk-20 (SVR-20)
- Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START)
- Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability: Adolescent Version (START:AV)
- Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA)
- Stable-2007 and Acute 2007
- Stalking Assessment and Management (SAM), Guidelines for
- Stalking Risk Profile (SRP)
- Static-2002 and Static-2002R
- Static-99 and Static-99R
- Statistical Information on Recidivism (SIR)
- Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY)
- Two-Tiered Violence Risk Estimates (TTV)
- Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG) and the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide-Revised (VRAG-R)
- Violence Risk Scale (VRS)
- Violence Risk Scale–Sexual Offender Version (VRS-SO)
- Violence Risk Scale–Youth Version (VRS-YV)
- Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory 2.0 (YLS/CMI 2.0)
- Forensic Assessment
- Mental Health Assessment
- Brief Jail Mental Health Screen
- Inmate Classification, Methods of
- Jail Screening Assessment Tool (JSAT)
- Law Enforcement Employment Screening
- Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument
- Mental Health Assessment
- Mental Health Assessment: Adult Screening Tools
- Mental Health Assessment: Juvenile Screening Tools
- Mental Health Assessment: Screening Tools
- Mental Health Treatment Planning
- Military Service Screening
- Prison Security Levels
- Psychodiagnostic Interview
- Services Matching Instrument (SMI)
- Offender Risk Assessment and Risk Level Classification
- Protective Factors Assessment
- Suicide and Self-Harm Risk Assessment
- Suicidal Versus Nonsuicidal Self-Injury in Corrections
- Suicide and Self-Harm in Corrections, Risk Factors for
- Suicide and Self-Harm Intervention and Management Strategies
- Suicide and Self-Harm Offender-Specific Screening Tools
- Suicide and Self-Harm Screening Tools
- Suicide and Self-Harm, Linkages to Violence Risk
- Suicide Risk and Self-Harm
- Suicide Risk and Self-Harm in Corrections, Prevalence and Estimates
- Offender-Crime Theories and Typologies Criminal Organizations and Networks
- Ñeta
- American Gangs
- Aryan Brotherhood
- Biker Gangs
- Black Guerrilla Family
- Bloods
- Criminal Organizations and Networks
- Crips
- Drug Trafficking
- Human Trafficking
- Mara Salvatrucha
- Mexican Drug Cartels
- Mexican Mafia
- Nuestra Familia
- Organized Crime Typologies
- Prison Gangs and Strategic Threat Groups
- Prison Gangs, Major
- Prostitution
- Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act
- Sicilian Mafia
- Street Gangs
- Texas Syndicate
- Transnational Gangs
- Weapons Trafficking
- Cybercrime
- Female Offenders
- Female Offenders
- Female Offenders: Controversies in Assessment, Treatment, and Management of
- Female Offenders: Gender Differences in Criminal Offense Characteristics
- Female Offenders: Patterns and Explanations
- Female Offenders: Prevalence and Statistics
- Female Sexual Offenders
- Female Sexual Offenders: Patterns and Explanations
- Female Violent Offending, Theoretical Models of
- Gendered Pathways
- Risk-Need-Responsivity, Application to Female Offenders
- Juvenile Offenders
- Occupational and Corporate Crime
- Offenders With Mental Illness
- Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder in the Criminal Justice System
- Mental Illness and Crime, Etiological Linkages Between
- Mental Illness and Violent Behavior: Perceptions and Evidence
- Mental Illness as a Predictor of Crime and Recidivism
- Offenders With Cognitive Disorders
- Offenders With Mental Illness
- Prevalence Estimates of Crime Among Persons With Mental Illness
- Prevalence Estimates of Mental Illness Among Offenders
- Recidivism
- Substance Abuse, Untreated Mental Illness, and Crime
- Threat/Control-Override Model
- Property Offenders
- Psychopathy
- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Classification of Psychopathy in
- Corporate Psychopaths
- Criminal Justice Correlates of Psychopathy
- Historical Antecedents of Psychopathy
- Neurobiological Models of Psychopathy
- Psychopathic Traits, Structure of
- Psychopathy
- Psychopathy Checklist (PCL)
- Psychopathy, Etiology of
- Social Learning and Environmental Determinants of Psychopathy
- Sexual Offenders
- Child Pornography
- Exhibitionism
- Extrafamilial Child Molestation
- Extrafamilial Child Molestation, Theories of
- Extrafamilial Child Molestation, Typologies of
- Female Sexual Offenders
- Frotteurism
- Human Trafficking
- Internet Exploitation and Child Luring
- Internet Sexual Offenders
- Intrafamilial Child Molestation
- Intrafamilial Child Molestation, Theories of
- Intrafamilial Child Molestation, Typologies of
- Mixed Sexual Offenders
- Noncontact Sexual Offenders
- Noncontact Sexual Offending, Theories of
- Pedophilia
- Rapists, Theories of
- Rapists, Typologies of
- Sadism
- Sexual Offenders
- Voyeurism
- Substance-Abusing Offenders
- Violent Offenders
- Arson
- Extortion
- Extremism and Terrorism, Middle Eastern
- Genetic and Environmental Influences on Violence and Aggression
- Hate Crimes
- Homicide
- Intimate Partner Violence
- Mental Disorders and Violence
- Neurobiological Bases of Aggression
- Robbery
- Self-Regulation
- Serial Murder
- Sexual Offending
- Stalking
- Theoretical Models of Violence and Aggression
- Violence Against Children
- Violent Offenders
- Violent Offenders, Categories of
- Preparing for a Criminal Justice Career
- Prison Services and Treatment
- “Nothing Works” Debate
- Ruiz v. Estelle (1980)
- Antisocial Personality Disorder in Incarcerated Offenders, Treatment of
- Basic Mental Health Services Versus Rehabilitation
- Bi-Adaptive Model of Mental Illness and Criminalness
- Bipolar Disorder in Incarcerated Offenders, Treatment of
- Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Social Learning Theory
- Cognitive Disorders in Incarcerated Offenders, Treatment of
- Community Corrections
- Co-occurring Disorders in Incarcerated Offenders, Treatment of
- Correctional Rehabilitation Services, Best Practices for
- Correctional Rehabilitation Services, Intensity of
- Criminalness
- Criminogenic Needs, Targeting
- Family-Oriented Correctional Programs
- Homework as Treatment
- Homework as Treatment: Active Versus Passive Homework
- Homework Compliance Strategies
- Ineffective Rehabilitation Strategies
- Low Intellectual Functioning in Incarcerated Offenders, Treatment of
- Major Depressive Disorder in Incarcerated Offenders, Treatment of
- Matching Treatment by Offender Type and Therapist Style
- Motivational Interviewing
- Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Incarcerated Offenders, Treatment of
- Offenders With Mental Illness in Prisons, Treatment for
- Personality Disorders in Incarcerated Offenders, Treatment of
- Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Incarcerated Offenders, Treatment of
- Prevention Versus Intervention
- Psychopathy Versus Antisocial Personality Disorder
- Resilience and Positive Psychology
- Social Skills Training
- Substance Use Treatment for Offenders With Mentally Disordered
- Telehealth
- Therapeutic Communities
- Trauma, Treatment of
- Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
- Trauma-Informed Treatment
- Traumatic Brain Injury in Incarcerated Offenders, Treatment of
- Treatment of Criminal Behavior: Family Therapy
- Treatment of Criminal Behavior: Group Psychotherapy
- Treatment of Criminal Behavior: Substance Abuse Counseling
- Prisons and Prisoners
- Ñeta
- Aging and Older Incarcerated Offenders
- Aging and Older Incarcerated Offenders, Palliative Care of
- Aging and Older Incarcerated Offenders, Physical Disability of
- Alcatraz
- Aryan Brotherhood
- Black Guerrilla Family
- Borderline Personality Disorder
- Children of Offenders
- Classification
- Correctional Management
- Correctional Officer Stress
- Correctional Officer’s Attitudes Toward Offenders
- Correctional Officers
- Correctional Officers, Occupational Duties of
- Deterrence
- Deterrence Effects of Adjudicating and Sentencing Juvenile Offenders as Adults
- Families of Incarcerated Offenders
- Federal Prisons
- Gender and Identity in Prison
- General Violence in Prisons
- Guantanamo Bay
- Immigration and Customs Detention
- Imprisonment and Stress
- Incarceration Rates, International
- Incarceration Rates, U.S.
- Incarceration, Effects of
- Inmate Code
- Institutional Violence and Misconduct
- Institutional Violence and Misconduct, Assessment and Management of
- Institutional Violence and Misconduct: Violence Toward Offenders
- Institutional Violence and Misconduct: Violence Toward Staff
- Intimidation
- Isolation in Prisons
- Jails
- Mara Salvatrucha
- Mexican Drug Cartels
- Mexican Mafia
- Nuestra Familia
- Prison Abolition
- Prison Gangs, Major
- Prison Misconduct, Prediction of
- Prison Overcrowding
- Prison Rape Elimination Act
- Prison Reform
- Prisons
- Privatization of Prisons
- Segregation in Prison, Physical Consequences of
- Segregation in Prison, Psychological Consequences of
- Segregation in Prisons
- Segregation in Prisons, Administrative
- Segregation in Prisons, Disciplinary
- Segregation in Prisons: Best Practices
- Sexual Violence in Adult Prisons and Jails
- Shock Incarceration
- State Prisons
- Suicide During Incarceration
- Texas Syndicate
- Threats in Prisons
- Victimization in Prisons
- Rehabilitation and Reentry
- Academic Programs for Prisoners
- Behavior Modification
- Cognitive Deficits, Effects on Rehabilitation
- Community Context and Mass Incarceration
- Comprehensive Correctional Plans
- Contingency Management
- Correctional Boot Camps
- Correctional Program Assessment Inventory (CPAI)
- Correctional Rehabilitation Programs, Evaluation of
- Cost-Effectiveness of Rehabilitation Versus Incarceration
- Criminogenic Needs
- Desistance
- Domestically Violent Offenders: Treatment Approaches
- Domestically Violent Offenders: Treatment Outcome Research
- Drug Testing
- Electronic Monitoring
- Evidence-Informed Tools for Assessing Correctional Rehabilitation Programs
- Faith-Based Initiatives
- Family-Focused Therapy
- Good Lives Model
- Inmate Denial of Criminal Risk
- Intensive Supervisory Probation
- Juvenile Offenders: Developmental Treatment Considerations
- Juvenile Offenders: Treatment Models and Approaches
- Mental Health Treatment
- Minor Criminal Risk Factors
- Motivation to Change
- Multisystemic Therapy
- Need Principle
- Offender Treatment Attrition
- Offender Treatment Attrition and Retention, Responsivity Issues
- Offenders With Mental Disorders: Treatment Outcome Research
- Personality Pathology
- Physical and Mental Health Treatment
- Police–Probation Partnerships
- Psychopathic Offenders, Treatment of
- Psychopathic Offenders: Ineffective Treatment Programs
- Psychopathic Offenders: Promising Treatment Programs
- Psychopathic Offenders: Treatment Challenges and Controversies
- Punishing Smarter Programs
- Punishment
- Punishment, Effective Principles of
- Reentry
- Reentry, Best Practices for
- Rehabilitation
- Repeat Offenders
- Responsivity Principle
- Restitution
- Restorative Justice
- Risk Principle
- Risk Principle, Illustrative Applications of
- Risk-Need-Responsivity, Principles of
- Sexual Offenders: Treatment Approaches
- Sexual Offenders: Treatment Outcome Research
- Spirituality
- Strategic Training Initiative in Community Supervision (STICS)
- Substance Use Treatment for Offenders With Mental Disorders
- Treatment Dosage and Treatment Effectiveness
- Treatment Foster Care Oregon
- Violent Offenders: Treatment Approaches
- Violent Offenders: Treatment Outcome Research
- Vocational Education
- Research in Criminal Psychology
- Crime Linkage Analysis
- Experimental Criminology, Research Methods in
- Forensic Psychology, Research Methods in
- Inmate Research Interviews
- Knowledge Destruction Versus Knowledge Cumulation
- Measurements and Scales, Use in Forensic Research
- Meta-Analysis
- Psychopathic Offenders: Current State of the Research
- Research in Criminal Psychology
- Self-Reports and Questionnaires
- Sequential Intercept Model
- Stanford Prison Experiment
- Treatment or Program Outcome Evaluations
- Within Treatment or Program Change
- State, Federal, and Private Criminal Justice Agencies
- Advocacy Organizations
- American Correctional Association
- Central Intelligence Agency
- Correctional Agencies
- Correctional Psychology Practice, Ethical Issues in
- Correctional Service Canada
- Criminal Courts
- Federal Bureau of Investigation
- Federal Bureau of Prisons
- Law Enforcement Agencies
- National Institute of Justice
- U.S. Department of Homeland Security
- U.S. Department of Justice
- U.S. Secret Service
- Theories of Crime
- Alcohol and Aggression
- Behavioral Genetics and Other Biological Influences on Criminal Behavior
- Behavioral Theory of Crime
- Crime Mapping
- Criminal Attitudes
- Criminal Careers and Offending Trajectories
- Criminal Lifestyle
- Criminalization Hypothesis
- Developmental Theories of Crime: Maltreatment
- Differential Association Theory
- Economics of Crime
- Family Systems Theory of Crime
- Feminist Perspectives on Crime
- Homelessness and Crime
- Life Course Perspectives on Crime
- Media: Influence on Crime
- Neighborhood and Crime
- Neighborhood Effects, Theory of
- Poverty and Crime
- Psychoanalytic Theory of Crime
- Psychology of Criminal Conduct
- Social Bond Theory
- Social Control Theory
- Social Disorganization Theory
- Social Drift Theory
- Social Learning Theory of Crime
- Sociological Theories of Crime
- Strain Theory of Crime
- Techniques of Neutralization
- War Crimes
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