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Social Comparison
Definition
Social comparison involves thinking about information about one or more other people in relation to the self. People may compare themselves with other people for a variety of reasons: to evaluate themselves (e.g., How good at math am I?), to learn from others (e.g., How much did that person study to ace that exam?), and to feel better about their own situation (e.g., I may not be great at algebra, but I'm better than 70% of my classmates), to name a few.
History and Background
Early research in social psychology on level of aspiration and on reference groups contributed to Leon Festinger's social comparison theory, which he proposed in 1954. Festinger argued that humans have a drive to evaluate their opinions and abilities. When objective standards for ...
- Action Control
- Action Identification Theory
- Adaptive Unconscious
- Apparent Mental Causation
- Approach-Avoidance Conflict
- Authenticity
- Auto-Motive Model
- Autonomy
- Behavioral Contagion
- Choking Under Pressure
- Control
- Controlled Processes
- Decision Making
- Delay of Gratification
- Drive Theory
- Ego Depletion
- Excitation-Transfer Theory
- Extrinsic Motivation
- Feedback Loop
- Free Will, Study of
- Goals
- Grim Necessities
- Guilty Pleasures
- Habits
- Helplessness, Learned
- Home-Field Advantage and Disadvantage
- Hormones and Behavior
- Implementation Intentions
- Intrinsic Motivation
- Ironic Processes
- Learned Helplessness
- Learning Theory
- Locus of Control
- Mental Control
- Meta-Awareness
- Mindfulness and Mindlessness
- Modeling of Behavior
- Nonconscious Processes
- Overjustification Effect
- Procrastination
- Reasoned Action Theory
- Regulatory Focus Theory
- Risk Taking
- Rubicon Model of Action Phases
- Scripts
- Self-Awareness
- Self-Control Measures
- Self-Defeating Behavior
- Self-Determination Theory
- Self-Discrepancy Theory
- Self-Efficacy
- Self-Handicapping
- Self-Regulation
- Social Facilitation
- Social Learning
- Social Loafing
- Stereotype Threat
- Stress Appraisal Theory (Primary and Secondary Appraisal)
- Temporal Construal Theory
- Theory of Planned Behavior
- Zeal
- Antisocial Behaviors
- Aggression
- Antisocial Behavior
- Aversive Racism
- Betrayal
- Bobo Doll Studies
- Bullying
- Catharsis of Aggression
- Cheater-Detection Mechanism
- Conflict Resolution
- Date Rape
- Deception (Lying)
- Displaced Aggression
- Frustration–Aggression Hypothesis
- GRIT Tension Reduction Strategy
- Hostile Masculinity Syndrome
- Intimate Partner Violence
- Media Violence and Aggression
- Milgram's Obedience to Authority Studies
- Moral Hypocrisy
- Narcissistic Reactance Theory of Sexual Coercion
- Ostracism
- Rape
- Rejection
- Sexual Harassment
- Social Exclusion
- Stanford Prison Experiment
- Terrorism, Psychology of
- Threatened Egotism Theory of Aggression
- Attitude
- Anticipatory Attitude Change
- Attitude Change
- Attitude Formation
- Attitude Strength
- Attitude–Behavior Consistency
- Attitudes
- Balance Theory
- Beliefs
- Brainwashing
- Cognitive Consistency
- Cognitive Dissonance Theory
- Dual Attitudes
- Effort Justification
- Elaboration Likelihood Model
- Forced Compliance Technique
- Forewarning
- Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion
- Implicit Attitudes
- MODE Model
- Motivated Reasoning
- Polarization Processes
- Satisficing
- Theory of Planned Behavior
- Values
- Culture
- Collective Self
- Collectivistic Cultures
- Cultural Animal
- Cultural Differences
- Culture
- Culture of Honor
- Erotic Plasticity
- Ethnocentrism
- Ideology
- Independent Self-Construals
- Interdependent Self-Construals
- Moral Development
- Mortality Salience
- Objectification Theory
- Pornography
- Relational Models Theory
- Sexual Economics Theory
- Terror Management Theory
- Emotions
- Affect
- Affect Heuristic
- Affect Infusion
- Affect-as-Information
- Ambivalence
- Anger
- Anxiety
- Arousal
- Awe
- Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Affect
- Buffering Effect
- Companionate Love
- Decision and Commitment in Love
- Disgust
- Elevation
- Embarrassment
- Emotion
- Emotional Contagion
- Emotional Intelligence
- Empathy
- Envy
- Facial Expression of Emotion
- Facial-Feedback Hypothesis
- Fear Appeals
- Forgiveness
- Gratitude
- Guilt
- Happiness
- Hedonic Treadmill
- Hope
- Independence of Positive and Negative Affect
- Intergroup Anxiety
- Intergroup Emotions
- Jealousy
- Loneliness
- Love
- Mere Exposure Effect
- Moral Emotions
- Nonconscious Emotion
- Opponent Process Theory of Emotions
- Positive Affect
- Regret
- Romantic Love
- Shame
- Social Anxiety
- Stress and Coping
- Surprise
- Unrequited Love
- Visceral Influences
- Evolution
- Affordances
- Cheater-Detection Mechanism
- Cultural Animal
- Dominance, Evolutionary
- Ecological Rationality
- Error Management Theory
- Ethology
- Evolutionary Psychology
- Fight-or-Flight Response
- Genetic Influences on Social Behavior
- Kin Selection
- Sexual Selection
- Sexual Strategies Theory
- Sociobiological Theory
- Sociobiology
- Groups
- Brainstorming
- Bystander Effect
- Close Relationships
- Cohesiveness, Group
- Collective Self
- Communal Relationships
- Conformity
- Contact Hypothesis
- Contingency Model of Leadership
- Crowding
- Deindividuation
- Deviance
- Diffusion of Responsibility
- Discontinuity Effect
- Distributive Justice
- Entitativity
- Gossip
- Group Cohesiveness
- Group Decision Making
- Group Dynamics
- Group Identity
- Group Performance and Group Productivity
- Group Polarization
- Groups, Characteristics of
- Groupthink
- Ingroup-Outgroup Bias
- Intergroup Anxiety
- Intergroup Emotions
- Intergroup Relations
- Jigsaw Classroom
- Leadership
- Minimal Group Paradigm
- Minority Social Influence
- Optimal Distinctiveness Theory
- Organizational Behavior
- Other–Total Ratio
- Outgroup Homogeneity
- Polarization Processes
- Power
- Procedural Justice
- Realistic Group Conflict Theory
- Ringelmann Effect
- Risky Shift
- Robbers Cave Experiment
- Roles and Role Theory
- Rumor Transmission
- Scapegoat Theory
- Self-Categorization Theory
- Self-Stereotyping
- Sex Roles
- Social Compensation
- Social Dominance Orientation
- Social Identity Theory
- Social Impact Theory
- Social Justice Orientation
- Social Loafing
- Social Power
- Socioeconomic Status
- Subtyping
- System Justification
- Territoriality
- Token Effects
- Health
- History
- Influence
- Compliance
- Conformity
- Debiasing
- Door-in-the-Face Technique
- Fear Appeals
- Foot-in-the-Door Technique
- Forced Compliance
- Forewarning
- Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion
- Influence
- Informational Influence
- Ingratiation
- Ingratiator's Dilemma
- Inoculation Theory
- Mere Exposure Effect
- Milgram's Obedience to Authority Studies
- Minority Social Influence
- Normative Influence
- Norms, Prescriptive and Descriptive
- Persuasion
- Reactance
- Reciprocity Norm
- Reference Group
- Resisting Persuasion
- Scarcity Principle
- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- Sleeper Effect
- Social Power
- Stealing Thunder
- Supplication
- Interpersonal Relationships
- Attachment Theory
- Betrayal
- Close Relationships
- Communal Relationships
- Companionate Love
- Complementarity, of Relationship Partners
- Decision and Commitment in Love
- Dependence Regulation
- Empathic Accuracy
- Equity Theory
- Exchange Relationships
- Forgiveness
- Gossip
- Interdependence Theory
- Interpersonal Cognition
- Intimacy
- Intimate Partner Violence
- Loneliness
- Love
- Marital Satisfaction
- Matching Hypothesis
- Mimicry
- Need to Belong
- Nonverbal Cues and Communication
- Ostracism
- Pornography
- Propinquity
- Rejection
- Romantic Love
- Romantic Secrecy
- Self-Disclosure
- Self-Evaluation Maintenance
- Self-Expansion Theory
- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- Sex Drive
- Sexual Desire
- Sexual Economics Theory
- Similarity-Attraction Effect
- Social Exchange Theory
- Social Exclusion
- Social Support
- Social Value Orientation
- Teasing
- Transactive Memory
- Triangular Theory of Love
- Trust
- Unrequited Love
- Judgment and Decision Making
- Behavioral Economics
- Decision Making
- Fast and Frugal Heuristics
- Free Will, Study of
- Grim Necessities
- Group Decision Making
- Group Polarization
- Hindsight Bias
- Hot Hand Effect
- Hyperbolic Discounting
- Illusion of Transparency
- Illusory Correlation
- Ingroup-Outgroup Bias
- Integrative Complexity
- Law of Small Numbers
- Loss Aversion
- Mental Accounting
- Mere Ownership Effect
- Naive Cynicism
- Naive Realism
- Omission Neglect
- Overconfidence
- Planning Fallacy
- Pluralistic Ignorance
- Preference Reversals
- Prisoner's Dilemma
- Prospect Theory
- Public Goods Dilemma
- Recency Effect
- Representativeness Heuristic
- Risk Taking
- Risky Shift
- Satisficing
- Sequential Choice
- Simulation Heuristic
- Simultaneous Choice
- Social Dilemmas
- Spreading of Alternatives
- Sunk Cost
- Visceral Influences
- Methods
- Autobiographical Narratives
- Behavioral Economics
- Bennington College Study
- Big Five Personality Traits
- Bobo Doll Studies
- Bogus Pipeline
- Content Analysis
- Control Condition
- Critical Social Psychology
- Cross-Lagged Panel Correlation
- Deception (Methodological Technique)
- Demand Characteristics
- Discursive Psychology
- Dynamical Systems Theory
- Ecological Validity
- Ethnocentrism
- Experimental Condition
- Experimental Realism
- Experimentation
- Experimenter Effects
- Falsification
- Forced Compliance Technique
- Identity Status
- Implicit Association Test
- Individual Differences
- LISREL
- Logical Positivism
- Lost Letter Technique
- Meta-Analysis
- Mundane Realism
- Nonexperimental Designs
- Operationalization
- Order Effects
- Path Analysis
- Placebo Effect
- Quasi-Experimental Designs
- Reductionism
- Research Methods
- Self-Reports
- Semantic Differential
- Social Desirability Bias
- Social Relations Model
- Sociometric Status
- Structural Equation Modeling
- Thematic Apperception Test
- Twin Studies
- Personality
- Achievement Motivation
- Agreeableness
- Androgyny
- Attachment Styles
- Authoritarian Personality
- Babyfaceness
- Big Five Personality Traits
- Central Traits Versus Peripheral Traits
- Control Motivation
- Curiosity
- Defensive Pessimism
- Depression
- Expertise
- Extraversion
- Gender Differences
- Genetic Influences on Social Behavior
- Hardiness
- Hostile Masculinity Syndrome
- Identity Status
- Implicit Personality Theory
- Individual Differences
- Introversion
- Locus of Control
- Masculinity/Femininity
- Metatraits
- Narcissism
- Narcissistic Entitlement
- Need for Affiliation
- Need for Closure
- Need for Cognition
- Need for Power
- Neuroticism
- Personalities and Behavior Patterns, Type A and Type B
- Personality and Social Behavior
- Power Motive
- Rejection Sensitivity
- Self-Complexity
- Self-Concept Clarity
- Self-Control Measures
- Self-Esteem
- Self-Esteem Stability
- Self-Monitoring
- Sensation Seeking
- Sex Drive
- Sex Roles
- Shyness
- Social Desirability Bias
- Testosterone
- Thematic Apperception Test
- Traits
- Uniqueness
- Prejudice
- Problem Behaviors
- Prosocial Behaviors
- Altruism
- Altruistic Punishment
- Attraction
- Bystander Effect
- Compassion
- Cooperation
- Decision Model of Helping
- Distributive Justice
- Empathic Accuracy
- Empathy
- Empathy–Altruism Hypothesis
- Gratitude
- GRIT Tension Reduction Strategy
- Helping Behavior
- Negative-State Relief Model
- Positive Psychology
- Prisoner's Dilemma
- Prosocial Behavior
- Public Goods Dilemma
- Reciprocal Altruism
- Religion and Spirituality
- Search for Meaning in Life
- Volunteerism
- Self
- Actor–Observer Asymmetries
- Apparent Mental Causation
- Barnum Effect
- Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRGing)
- Brainwashing
- Close Relationships
- Collective Self
- Contingencies of Self-Worth
- Deindividuation
- Downward Social Comparison
- Ego Shock
- Egocentric Bias
- Escape Theory
- Executive Function of Self
- Exemplification
- Facial-Feedback Hypothesis
- Identity Crisis
- Illusion of Control
- Illusion of Transparency
- Impression Management
- Independent Self-Construals
- Ingratiator's Dilemma
- Interdependent Self-Construals
- Introspection
- Looking-Glass Self
- Mental Control
- Mere Ownership Effect
- Misattribution of Arousal
- Moral Development
- Mortality Salience
- Name Letter Effect
- Objectification Theory
- Optimal Distinctiveness Theory
- Overjustification Effect
- Personal Space
- Phenomenal Self
- Positive Illusions
- Procrastination
- Projection
- Psychological Entitlement
- Reactance
- Regulatory Focus Theory
- Roles and Role Theory
- Schemas
- Self
- Self-Affirmation Theory
- Self-Attribution Process
- Self-Awareness
- Self-Categorization Theory
- Self-Complexity
- Self-Concept
- Self-Concept Clarity
- Self-Control Measures
- Self-Deception
- Self-Defeating Behavior
- Self-Determination Theory
- Self-Disclosure
- Self-Discrepancy Theory
- Self-Efficacy
- Self-Enhancement
- Self-Esteem
- Self-Esteem Stability
- Self-Evaluation Maintenance
- Self-Expansion Theory
- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- Self-Handicapping
- Self-Monitoring
- Self-Perception Theory
- Self-Presentation
- Self-Promotion
- Self-Reference Effect
- Self-Regulation
- Self-Reports
- Self-Serving Bias
- Self-Stereotyping
- Self-Verification Theory
- Social Comparison
- Social Identity Theory
- Spotlight Effect
- Stigma
- Symbolic Self-Completion
- Terror Management Theory
- Threatened Egotism Theory of Aggression
- Uniqueness
- Value Priorities
- Zeal
- Social Cognition
- Accessibility
- Accountability
- Action Identification Theory
- Actor–Observer Asymmetries
- Adaptive Unconscious
- Alcohol Myopia Effect
- Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
- Assimilation Processes
- Associative Networks
- Attention
- Attribution Theory
- Attributional Ambiguity
- Attributions
- Automatic Processes
- Availability Heuristic
- Bad Is Stronger Than Good
- Barnum Effect
- Base Rate Fallacy
- Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRGing)
- Belief Perseverance
- Blaming the Victim
- Central Traits Versus Peripheral Traits
- Confirmation Bias
- Consciousness
- Contrast Effects
- Controlled Processes
- Correspondence Bias
- Correspondent Inference Theory
- Counterfactual Thinking
- Creativity
- Curiosity
- Debiasing
- Defensive Attribution
- Depressive Realism
- Diagnosticity
- Dilution Effect
- Discounting, in Attribution
- Distinctiveness, in Attribution
- Downward Social Comparison
- Dual Process Theories
- Egocentric Bias
- Emotional Intelligence
- Encoding
- Excuse
- Expectancy Effects
- Expectations
- Eyewitness Testimony, Accuracy of
- False Consciousness
- False Consensus Effect
- False Uniqueness Bias
- Focalism
- Fundamental Attribution Error
- Gain–Loss Framing
- Gambler's Fallacy
- Halo Effect
- Heuristic Processing
- Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion
- Hostile Attribution Bias
- Hostile Media Bias
- Hot Hand Effect
- Illusory Correlation
- Implicit Personality Theory
- Inference
- Integrative Complexity
- Interpersonal Cognition
- Justice Motive
- Just-World Hypothesis
- Kelley's Covariation Model
- Lay Epistemics
- Lowballing
- Matching Hypothesis
- Meaning Maintenance Model
- Memory
- Metacognition
- Mimicry
- Mind-Wandering
- Misattribution of Arousal
- Moral Emotions
- Moral Reasoning
- Motivated Cognition
- Motivated Reasoning
- MUM Effect
- Nonconscious Processes
- Norms, Prescriptive and Descriptive
- Omission Neglect
- Person Perception
- Personality Judgments, Accuracy of
- Person-Positivity Heuristic
- Positive–Negative Asymmetry
- Primacy Effect, Attribution
- Primacy Effect, Memory
- Priming
- Projection
- Prototypes
- Recency Effect
- Responsibility Attribution
- Risk Appraisal
- Salience
- Satisficing
- Schemas
- Scripts
- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- Self-Reference Effect
- Self-Serving Bias
- Self-Verification Theory
- Shifting Standards
- Similarity-Attraction Effect
- Social Categorization
- Social Cognition
- Social Cognitive Neuroscience
- Social Comparison
- Social Impact Theory
- Social Projection
- Spontaneous Trait Inferences
- Spreading of Alternatives
- Subliminal Perception
- Subtyping
- Symbolic Interactionism
- Theory of Mind
- Thin Slices of Behavior
- Three-Dimensional Model of Attribution
- Transactive Memory
- Value Pluralism Model
- Subdisciplines
- Applied Social Psychology
- Consumer Behavior
- Critical Social Psychology
- Discursive Psychology
- Environmental Psychology
- Ethology
- Evolutionary Psychology
- Eyewitness Testimony, Accuracy of
- Forensic Psychology
- Health Psychology
- History of Social Psychology
- Organizational Behavior
- Peace Psychology
- Personality and Social Behavior
- Political Psychology
- Positive Psychology
- Religion and Spirituality
- Social Cognitive Neuroscience
- Social Neuroscience
- Social Psychophysiology
- Sociobiology
- Sociological Social Psychology
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