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Appendix B: Journalism Freedom: 1980–2008 (Country Ratings from Freedom House) - Turkmenistan
In: Encyclopedia of Journalism
Appendix B: Journalism Freedom: 1980–2008 (Country Ratings from Freedom House) - Turkmenistan
- Entry
- Reader's Guide
- Entries A-Z
- Subject Index
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Population (2010, proj.): 5,177,000
Gross National Income per Capita (current, 2000): $650
Date of Independence: October 27, 1991 (from the Soviet Union)
Date of Last Constitution: May 18, 1992
Press repression here resembles that of the former Soviet Union. The government retains a monopoly over all media services, and foreign publications are banned as well. Attacks on journalists are fairly ...
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- Audience
- Audience Research
- Audience Research Companies
- Circulation, Controlled
- Mass Media, Decline of
- News Audiences, Decline of
- Polls and Public Opinion
- Academic Accreditation
- Academic Associations
- Advocacy Groups
- Archives and Museums
- Criticism of Journalism
- Education, Journalism
- Foundations, Research Centers, and Institutes
- Media Accountability Systems
- News Councils
- Scholarly Journals
- Student Journalism
- African American News Media
- Asian American News Media
- Diversity: Content
- Diversity: Employment
- Diversity: Policy
- Émigré News Media
- Ethnic Minority Networks
- Feminist News Media
- Gay and Lesbian Journalism
- Gay and Lesbian News Media
- Latino News Media
- Native American News Media
- Race and Ethnicity, Coverage of
- Women in Journalism
- Women's Magazines
- Agenda Setting
- Books as Journalism
- Comparative Models of Journalism
- Education, Journalism
- Framing
- Free Expression, History of
- Gatekeeping
- Hard Versus Soft News
- History of Journalism: Before 1861
- History of Journalism: 1861–1930
- History of Journalism: 1930–1995
- History of Journalism: 1995 to Present
- Infotainment
- Internet Impact on Media
- Mass Media, Decline of
- Muckrakers
- New Journalism
- News as Narrative
- News Audiences, Decline of
- Newsroom Culture
- News Values
- Objectivity
- Parody of News
- Satire of News
- Social Movements and Journalism
- Theories of Journalism
- Advertising
- Antitrust
- Circulation, Controlled
- Diversity: Policy
- Employment
- Internet Impact on Media
- Joint Operating Agreements
- Labor Unions
- Marketing
- Media Ownership
- Newspaper Preservation Act
- Access to Media
- Advertorials
- Antitrust
- Bandwagon Journalism
- Bias
- Blacklisting
- Censorship
- Checkbook Journalism
- Copyright
- Credibility
- Deception
- Diversity: Content
- Diversity: Employment
- Embedded Reporters
- Ethics
- First Amendment
- Free Press and Fair Trial
- Indecency and Obscenity
- Infotainment
- Juvenile Offenders, Coverage of
- Libel
- Media Accountability Systems
- Media Literacy
- Military and the Media
- News Syndication
- Objectivity
- Plagiarism
- Press Pools
- Privacy
- Professionalism
- Risk and News
- Secrecy and Leaks
- Sound Bites
- Spin
- Video News Releases
- Violence Against Journalists
- Anchors, Television
- Cartoonists, Political
- Columns and Columnists
- Commentators, Radio
- Commentators, Television
- Editors
- Foreign Correspondents, Electronic
- Foreign Correspondents, Print
- Interviewers
- Investigative Reporters
- Newscasters, Radio
- Photo Editors
- Photojournalists
- Political Reporters
- Producers
- Publishers
- Reporters, Online
- Reporters, Print
- Reporters, Radio
- Reporters, Television
- Satirists, Political
- Sportscasters, Radio
- Sportscasters, Television
- Sportswriters
- War Correspondents
- Access to Media
- Antitrust
- Censorship
- Copyright
- Diversity: Policy
- Federal Communications Commission
- First Amendment
- Freedom of Information Act
- Free Press and Fair Trial
- Gag Orders
- Images, Ownership of
- Indecency and Obscenity
- International and Comparative Journalism Law
- Libel
- Media Accountability Systems
- News Councils
- Newspaper Preservation Act
- Newsroom Culture
- Privacy
- Self-Regulation
- Shield Law
- Sunshine Law
- Supreme Court and Journalism
- Business Magazines
- Celebrity and Fan Magazines
- Newsweekly Magazines
- Photo Magazines
- Quality and Opinion Magazines
- Scholarly Journals
- Trade Magazines
- Women's Magazines
- Distribution, Online
- Documentaries, Motion Picture
- Film in Television News
- Motion Pictures, Journalism in
- Newsreels
- ABC News
- Air America
- Al Arabiya
- Al Jazeera
- Al-Manar
- British Broadcasting Corporation
- Cable News
- CBS News
- Chinese Television
- Deutsche Welle
- Ethnic Minority Networks
- EuroNews
- Fox News
- Mutual Broadcasting System
- National Public Radio
- NBC News
- Public Broadcasting Service
- Star News (Asia)
- Agence France-Presse
- Associated Press
- Audio and Video News Services
- Bloomberg
- Clipping Services
- Digital Media Europe
- Dow Jones
- Feature Syndicates
- Gannett
- Havas
- International News Service
- New China (Xinhua) News Agency
- PanAfrican News Agency
- Photo Agencies
- Reuters
- TASS and Russian News Agencies
- United Press International
- Wolff
- Agriculture Journalism, Electronic
- Agriculture Journalism, Print
- Business Journalism
- Citizen Journalism
- Civic Journalism
- Civil Unrest, Coverage of
- Columns and Columnists
- Comics
- Congress and Journalism
- Crime and the Courts
- Criticism and Critics
- Diversity: Content
- Docudrama
- Documentaries, Motion Picture
- Documentaries, Television
- Editorials
- Education, Coverage of
- Entertainment Journalism
- Environmental Journalism
- Food Journalism
- Globalization, Coverage of
- Government, Federal Coverage of
- Government, State and Local, Coverage of
- Health and Medicine Journalism
- Hoaxes
- Human Interest Journalism
- Immigration, Coverage of
- Innovation Journalism
- International Journalism
- Investigative Journalism
- Labor Journalism
- Letters to the Editor
- Lifestyle Journalism
- Literary Journalism
- Maps in Journalism
- Natural Disasters, Coverage of
- Obituaries
- Op-Ed Page
- Peace Journalism
- Poverty, Coverage of
- Precision Journalism
- Presidential Families, Coverage of
- Presidential Scandals, Coverage of
- Presidents, Coverage of
- Race and Ethnicity, Coverage of
- Religion Journalism
- Science and Technology Journalism
- Sensationalism
- Sports Journalism
- Terrorism, Coverage of
- Travel Journalism
- War and Military Journalism
- Weather Journalism
- Atlanta
- Baltimore
- Boston
- Chicago
- Dallas–Ft. Worth
- Denver
- Houston
- Kansas City
- Los Angeles
- Miami
- Milwaukee
- Minneapolis–St. Paul
- New York
- New York Times, The
- Philadelphia
- Publick Occurrences
- San Francisco
- Stars and Stripes
- St. Louis
- USA Today
- Wall Street Journal, The
- Washington, D.C.
- Africa, North
- Africa, Sub-Saharan
- Agence France-Presse
- Arab Countries
- Asia, Central, South, and East
- Australia
- British Broadcasting Corporation
- British Broadcasting Regulation
- British Commercial News Broadcasting
- British Literary Journalism
- British Magazines
- British New Media
- British Newspapers
- British Press Regulation
- British Tabloid Press
- Canada
- Central America and the Caribbean
- China
- Comparative Models of Journalism
- Development Journalism
- English Roots of the Free Press
- Europe
- France
- Free Flow of Information
- Germany
- Globalization, Coverage of
- Havas
- Hong Kong
- India
- International Herald Tribune
- International Journalism
- Israel
- Japan
- Mexico
- New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO)
- Pacific Area
- PanAfrican News Agency
- Reuters
- Russian Federation
- Scandinavia
- Singapore
- South America
- Star News (Asia)
- TASS and Russian News Agencies
- U.S. International Communication
- Wolff
- Advocacy Newspapers
- Alternative and Underground Newspapers
- Broadsheet Newspapers
- Free Newspapers
- Student Journalism
- Tabloid Newspapers
- Weekly Newspapers
- Blogs and Bloggers
- Chat Rooms
- Classified Advertising
- Computers in Journalism
- Convergence
- Desktop Publishing
- Digital Journalism Tools
- Discussion Boards
- Distribution, Online
- Editing, Online and Digital
- Internet Impact on Media
- News Aggregators
- Podcasting
- Reporters, Online
- Social Network Websites
- Streaming Media
- Academic Associations
- Archives and Museums
- Audience Research Companies
- Consultants, News
- Editors' Organizations
- Electronic Media Organizations
- Foundations, Research Centers, and Institutes
- International Journalism Organizations
- Investigative Journalism Organizations
- Labor Unions
- News Councils
- Photo Agencies
- Publishers' Organizations
- Reporters' Organizations
- Special Interest Journalism Organizations
- U.S. International Communications
- Audio and Video News Services
- Advocacy Groups
- Cartoonists, Political
- Congress and Journalism
- Election Coverage
- Equal Time
- First Amendment
- Freedom of Information Act
- Government, Federal, Coverage of
- Government, State and Local, Coverage, of
- News Conferences
- Political Action Committees
- Political Reporters
- Presidential Families, Coverage of
- Presidential Scandals, Coverage of
- Presidents, Coverage of
- Press and Government Relations
- Press Pools
- Satirists, Political
- Spin
- Supreme Court and Journalism
- Washington, D.C.
- Agenda Setting
- Automation
- Diffusion
- Digital Journalism Tools
- Distribution
- Distribution, Online
- Editing, Newspaper
- Editing, Online and Digital
- Electronic News Gathering
- Framing
- Freelance Writers and Stringers
- Graphics
- Labor Unions
- Layout
- Magazine Design
- News Hole
- News Syndication
- Newspaper Design
- Newsprint
- Printing
- Recording
- Satellite News Gathering
- Sound Bites
- ABC News
- Agriculture Journalism, Electronic
- Air America
- Audio and Video News Services
- British Broadcasting Corporation
- British Broadcasting Regulation
- British Commercial News Broadcasting
- CBS News
- Commentators, Radio
- Community Radio
- Digital Sound
- Electronic Media Organizations
- Equal Time
- Federal Communications Commission
- Foreign Correspondents, Electronic
- Mutual Broadcasting System
- National Public Radio
- NBC News
- Newscasters, Radio
- Pacifica Radio
- Podcasting
- Public Radio Journalism
- Recording
- Reporters, Radio
- Rip-and-Read News
- Shortwave Radio
- Simulcasting
- Sportscasters, Radio
- Streaming Media
- Talk and News Radio
- Automation
- Blogs and Bloggers
- Cables, Undersea
- Cable Television
- Chat Rooms
- Computers in Journalism
- Convergence
- Desktop Publishing
- Digital Journalism Tools
- Digital Photography
- Digital Sound
- Digital Television
- Discussion Boards
- Distribution, Online
- Electronic News Gathering
- Facsimile
- Graphics
- Internet Impact on Media
- News Aggregators
- Newsprint
- Photography
- Podcasting
- Printing
- Recording
- Satellite News Gathering
- Shortwave Radio
- Streaming Media
- Telegraph
- Telephone
- Teletype
- Type and Typography
- Videotex and Teletext
- ABC News
- Agriculture Journalism, Electronic
- Anchors, Television
- British Broadcasting Corporation
- British Broadcasting Regulation
- British Commercial News Broadcasting
- Cable Television
- CBS News
- Commentators, Television
- Digital Television
- Docudrama
- Documentaries, Television
- Electronic Media Organizations
- Electronic Newsgathering
- Equal Time
- Evening News, Television
- Facsimile
- Foreign Correspondents, Electronic
- Fox News
- Morning News
- National Public Radio
- NBC News
- Producers
- Public Broadcasting Service
- Public Television Journalism
- Reporters, Television
- Satellite News Gathering
- Simulcasting
- Sound Bites
- Sportscasters, Television
- Streaming Media
- Tabloid Television
- Television News Magazines
- Video News Release
- Videotex and Teletext
- About the Volume Editor
- Volume Introduction
- Introduction
- Constitutional Amendments
- Antigovernment Issues and National Security
- Clear and Present Danger Speech
- Prior Restraint
- Libel Issues
- Privacy Protection
- Access to Public Records
- Reporter's Privilege to Withhold Information
- Intellectual Property Protection
- Regulating Electronic Media
- Further Readings
- Introduction
- General Professional Associations
- General Broadcast Organizations
- Print Organizations
- Interactive Media Organizations
- News Wire Services
- Further Readings
- Reporting Specializations
- Introduction
- Accreditation Standards in Journalism Education
- Journalism White Papers on Changes in Education and Media
- Schools of Journalism: Values and Curriculum
- Further Readings
- Audience Research
- Introduction
- Public Opinion
- Internet Impact on Media
- Newsroom Diversity
- Journalism Employment/Careers
- Key Trends in Journalism
- Further Readings
- Introduction
- The Pulitzer Prizes
- General Journalism Awards
- Specialized Journalism Awards
- Electronic Journalism Awards
- Photography and Editorial Cartooning Awards
- Introduction
- Afghanistan
- Albania
- Algeria
- Andorra
- Angola
- Antigua And Barbuda
- Argentina
- Armenia
- Australia
- Austria
- Azerbaijan
- Bahamas
- Bahrain
- Bangladesh
- Barbados
- Belarus
- Belgium
- Belize
- Benin
- Bhutan
- Bolivia
- Bosnia And Herzegovina
- Botswana
- Brazil
- Brunei Darussalam
- Bulgaria
- Burkina Faso
- Burundi
- Cambodia
- Cameroon
- Canada
- Capeverde
- Central African Republic
- Chad
- Chile
- China
- Colombia
- Comoros
- Congo, Republic Of
- Costa Rica
- Cote D'Ivoire
- Croatia
- Cuba
- Cyprus
- Czech Republic
- Democratic Republic Of The Congo
- Denmark
- Djibouti
- Dominica
- Dominican Republic
- Ecuador
- Egypt
- El Salvador
- Equatorial Guinea
- Eritrea
- Estonia
- Ethiopia
- Fiji
- Finland
- France
- Gabon
- Gambia
- Georgia
- Germany
- Ghana
- Greece
- Grenada
- Guatemala
- Guinea
- Guinea-Bissau
- Guyana
- Haiti
- Honduras
- Hong Kong
- Hungary
- Iceland
- India
- Indonesia
- Iran
- Iraq
- Ireland
- Israel
- Italy
- Jamaica
- Japan
- Jordan
- Kazakhstan
- Kenya
- Kiribati
- Kuwait
- Kyrgyzstan
- Laos
- Latvia
- Lebanon
- Lesotho
- Liberia
- Libya
- Liechtenstein
- Lithuania
- Luxembourg
- Macedonia
- Madagascar
- Malawi
- Malaysia
- Maldives
- Mali
- Malta
- Marshall Islands
- Mauritania
- Mauritius
- Mexico
- Micronesia
- Moldova
- Monaco
- Mongolia
- Morocco
- Mozambique
- Myanmar (Burma)
- Namibia
- Nauru
- Nepal
- Netherlands
- New Zealand
- Nicaragua
- Niger
- Nigeria
- North Korea
- Norway
- Oman
- Pakistan
- Palau
- Panama
- Papua New Guinea
- Paraguay
- Peru
- Philippines
- Poland
- Portugal
- Qatar
- Romania
- Russian Federation
- Rwanda
- Saint Kitts And Nevis
- Saint Lucia
- Saint Vincent And The Grenadines
- Samoa
- San Marino
- Sao Tome And Principe
- Saudi Arabia
- Senegal
- Serbia And Montenegro
- Seychelles
- Sierra Leone
- Singapore
- Slovakia
- Slovenia
- Solomon Islands
- Somalia
- South Africa
- South Korea
- Spain
- Sri Lanka
- Sudan
- Suriname
- Swaziland
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- Syrian Arab Republic
- Taiwan
- Tajikistan
- Tanzania
- Thailand
- Timor-Leste
- Togo
- Tonga
- Trinidad And Tobago
- Tunisia
- Turkey
- Turkmenistan
- Tuvalu
- Uganda
- Ukraine
- United Arab Emirates
- United Kingdom
- United States Of America
- Uruguay
- Uzbekistan
- Vanuatu
- Venezuela
- Vietnam
- West Bank And Gaza Strip
- Yemen
- Zambia
- Zimbabwe
- Notes to the User
- Acknowledgments
- Section 1. General Reference
- Section 2. History
- Section 3. Technology
- Section 4. Journalism Business and Process
- Section 5. News Categories
- Section 6. Political Communication
- Section 7. Journalists
- Section 8. Regulation, Ethics, and Critique
- Section 9. Audiences
- Section 10. Global and Comparative Journalism
- Section 11. Journalism Periodicals
- Section 12. A Library User's Guide for Journalism and Mass Communication Subjects
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