In Regents of the University of Michigan v. Ewing (1985), the U.S. Supreme Court faced the issue of whether university officials acted arbitrarily in violation of a student's substantive due process rights when a faculty board dismissed him from a program without granting him an opportunity to retake a medical board examination that he failed. The Court noted the judicial deference to academic professionals on matters of substantive due process that it had granted seven years earlier in Board of Curators of the University of Missouri v. Horowitz (1978), another case involving the academic dismissal of a student in a medical school. Given this deference and the faculty's conscientious and deliberate review, the Court concluded that university officials, vis-ä-vis the program faculty, did not violate ...