Encyclopedia of Geography
Encyclopedias
Publication Year: 2010
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Editorial Board
EditorBarney Warf, University of Kansas
- Piotr Jankowski, San Diego State University
- Barry D. Solomon, Michigan Technological University
- Mark Welford, Georgia Southern University
Associate Editors- Jonathan Leib, Old Dominion University
Managing EditorCopyright
Copyright © 2010 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
For information:
SAGE Publications, Inc.
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Printed in Singapore.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Encyclopedia of geography, volume I–VI / edited by Barney Warf.
6 v., p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4129-5697-0 (cloth)
1. Geography—Encyclopedias. I. Warf, Barney, 1956-
G63.E554 2010
910.3—dc22 2010009453
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
10 11 12 13 14 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Publisher: Rolf A. Janke
Assistant to the Publisher: Michele Thompson
Acquisitions Editor: Robert Rojek
Developmental Editor: Diana E. Axelsen
Reference Systems Manager: Leticia Gutierrez
Reference Systems Coordinator: Laura Notton
Production Editor: Tracy Buyan
Copy Editors: QuADS Prepress (P) Ltd.
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreaders: Penelope Sippel, Rae-Ann Goodwin, Annette Van Deusen
Indexer: Julie Sherman Grayson
Cover Designer: Ravi Balasuriya
Marketing Manager: Amberlyn McKay
Volume 1 cover photo: The fjords of Sogn og Fjordane dominate this image of the western coastline of Norway. Carved out of mountains by glaciers, the flooded U-shaped valleys are surrounded by steep cliffs, verdant slopes, and snowcapped mountain tops. Courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey.
List of Entries
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Reader's Guide
The Reader's Guide is designed to assist readers in finding articles on related topics. Headwords are organized into six major categories: Physical Geography; Human Geography; Nature and Society; Methods, Models, and GIS; History of Geography; and People, Organizations, and Movements. Note, however, that many topics defy easy categorization and belong to more than one grouping.
- Physical Geography: Biogeography
- Adaptive Radiation
- Animal Geographies
- Biodiversity
- Biogeochemical Cycles
- Biogeography
- Biome: Boreal Forest
- Biome: Desert
- Biome: Midlatitude Deciduous Forest
- Biome: Midlatitude Grassland
- Biome: Tropical Deciduous Forest
- Biome: Tropical Rain Forest
- Biome: Tropical Savanna
- Biome: Tropical Scrub
- Biome: Tundra
- Bioregionalism
- Biosphere Reserves
- Biota and Climate
- Biota and Soils
- Biota and Topography
- Biota Migration and Dispersal
- Coral Reef
- Ecoregions
- Ecoshed
- Ecosystem Decay
- Ecosystems
- Ecotone
- Exotic Species
- Extinctions
- Gaia Theory
- Great American Exchange
- Human-Induced Invasion of Species
- Invasion and Succession
- Island Biogeography
- Keystone Species
- Nutrient Cycles
- Organophosphates
- Peat
- Permaculture
- Phosphorus Cycle
- Prairies
- Pyrogeography
- Resilience
- Single Large or Several Small (SLOSS) Debate
- Species-Area Relationship
- Taphonomy
- Wetlands
- Physical Geography: Climatology
- Adiabatic Temperature Changes
- Air Masses
- Albedo
- Anthropogenic Climate Change
- Atmospheric Circulation
- Atmospheric Composition and Structure
- Atmospheric Energy Transfer
- Atmospheric Moisture
- Atmospheric Particulates across Scales
- Atmospheric Pressure
- Atmospheric Variations in Energy
- Carbonation
- Carbon Cycle
- Carbon Trading and Carbon Offsets
- Chinooks/Foehns
- Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
- Chlorofluorocarbons
- Climate: Dry
- Climate: Midlatitude, Mild
- Climate: Midlatitude, Severe
- Climate: Mountain
- Climate: Polar
- Climate: Tropical Humid
- Climate Change
- Climate Policy
- Climate Types
- Climatic Relict
- Climatology
- Clouds
- Coriolis Force
- Cyclones: Extratropical
- Cyclones: Occluded
- Derechos
- Differential Heating
- El Niño
- Equinox
- Filtration
- Fronts
- Global Sea-Level Rise
- Hadley Cell
- Humidity
- Hurricanes, Physical Geography of
- Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification
- Krummholtz
- Land-Water Breeze
- La Niña
- Lapse Rate
- Latent Heat
- Lightning
- Monsoons
- Precipitation, Global
- Precipitation Formation
- Radiation: Solar and Terrestrial
- Solar Energy
- Solstices
- Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
- Symptoms and Effects of Climate Change
- Teleconnections
- Temperature Patterns
- Thunderstorms
- Tornadoes
- Urban Heat Island
- Weather and Climate Controls
- Wind
- Physical Geography: Geomorphology
- Archipelago
- Arid Topography
- Atoll
- Barrier Islands
- Basin and Range Topography
- Caverns
- Coastal Erosion and Deposition
- Coral Reef Geomorphology
- Creep
- Delta
- Diastrophism
- Dunes
- Earthquakes
- Faulting
- Fjords
- Flocculation
- Floodplain
- Flow
- Folding
- Geologic Timescale
- Geomorphic Cycle
- Geomorphology
- Geothermal Features
- Glaciers: Continental
- Glaciers: Mountain
- Groundwater
- Gully Erosion
- Hydrological Connectivity
- Hydrology
- Ice
- Impermeable Surfaces
- Islands, Small
- Karst Topography
- Landforms
- Mass Wasting
- Minerals
- Nitrogen Cycle
- Oceanic Circulation
- Oceans
- Periglacial Environments
- Permafrost
- Plate Tectonics
- Playas
- Rill Erosion
- Rivers
- Rock Weathering
- Sedimentary Rock
- Sedimentation
- Soils
- Surface Water
- Volcanoes
- Wind Erosion
- Human Geography: Economic Geography
- Agglomeration Economies
- Applied Geography
- Automobile Industry
- Aviation and Geography
- Biotechnology Industry
- Business Cycles and Geography
- Business Geography
- Central Business District
- Central Place Theory
- Circuits of Capital
- Clusters
- Commodity Chains
- Comparative Advantage
- Competitive Advantage
- Cost-Benefit Analysis
- Crisis
- Debt and Debt Crisis
- Deindustrialization
- Dependency Theory
- Developing World
- Development Theory
- Division of Labor
- E-Commerce and Geography
- Economic Base Analysis
- Economic Geography
- Economies of Scale
- Economies of Scope
- Electronics Industry, Geography of
- Emerging Markets
- Euromarket
- Export-Led Development
- Export Processing Zones
- Externalities
- Factors Affecting Location of Firms
- Finance, Geography of
- Flexible Production
- Food, Geography of
- Fordism
- Foreign Aid
- Foreign Direct Investment
- Geospatial Industry
- Globalization
- Glocalization
- Gravity Model
- Gross Domestic Product/Gross National Product
- Growth Poles
- High Technology
- Import Substitution Industrialization
- Incubator Zones
- Industrial Districts
- Industrialization
- Industrial Revolution
- Informal Economy
- Information Society
- Infrastructure
- Innovation, Geography of
- Input-Output Models
- Knowledge, Geography of
- Knowledge Spillovers
- Labor, Geography of
- Learning Regions
- Location Theory
- Manufacturing Belt
- Marginal Regions
- Military Spending
- Modernization Theory
- Money, Geographies of
- Most Favored Nation Status
- Neocolonialism
- Neoliberalism
- New International Division of Labor
- Newly Industrializing Countries
- Offshore Finance
- Outsourcing
- Peasants and Peasantry
- Plantations
- Political Economy
- Ports and Maritime Trade
- Postindustrial Society
- Poverty
- Producer Services
- Product Cycle
- Railroads and Geography
- Real Estate, Geography and
- Regional Economic Development
- Regulation Theory
- Remittances
- Research and Development, Geographies of
- Restructuring
- Retail Trade, Geography of
- Rural Development
- Rural Geography
- Satellites and Geography
- Space of Flows
- Spatial Fix
- Steel Industry, Geography of
- Structural Adjustment
- Sustainable Development
- Sustainable Development Alternatives
- Technological Change, Geography of
- Telecommunications and Geography
- Textile Industry
- Thünen Model
- Trade
- Transnational Corporation
- Transportation Geography
- Underdevelopment
- Uneven Development
- Human Geography: Geographical Theory
- Absolute Space
- Actor-Network Theory
- Anarchism and Geography
- Behavioral Geography
- Complexity Theory
- Complex Systems Models
- Cosmopolitanism
- Critical Human Geography
- Cultural Turn
- Cyborg Ecologies
- Difference, Geographies of
- Discourse and Geography
- Empiricism
- Epistemology
- Ethics, Geography and
- Ethnocentrism
- Eurocentrism
- Existentialism and Geography
- Feminist Geographies
- Feminist Methodologies
- Gender and Geography
- Historicism
- Humanistic Geography
- Hybrid Geographies
- Idiographic
- Locality
- Logical Positivism
- Malthusianism
- Marxism, Geography and
- Models and Modeling
- Nomothetic
- Nonrepresentational Theory
- Ontology
- Orientalism
- Other/Otherness
- Panopticon
- Path Dependence
- Phenomenology
- Place
- Postcolonialism
- Postmodernism
- Poststructuralism
- Production of Space
- Queer Theory
- Race and Racism
- Radical Geography
- Realism
- Regional Geography
- Regional Science
- Regions and Regionalism
- Relative/Relational Space
- Representations of Space
- Scale, Social Production of
- Science and Technology Studies
- Sense of Place
- Situated Knowledge
- Spaces of Representation/Representational Spaces
- Spatially Integrated Social Sciences
- Spatial Turn
- Structuralism
- Structuration Theory
- Subaltern Studies
- Text/Textuality
- Time-Geography
- Time-Space Compression
- Vision and Geography
- Human Geography: Medical Geography
- Cancer, Geography of
- Carcinogens
- Cholera, Geography of
- Disease, Geography of
- Health and Health Care, Geography of
- HIV/AIDS, Geography of
- Malaria, Geography of
- Medical Geography
- Human Geography: Political Geography
- Borderlands
- Borders and Boundaries
- Cold War, Geography of
- Colonialism
- Communism and Geography
- Critical Geopolitics
- Cross-Border Cooperation
- Decolonization
- Democracy
- Deterritorialization and Reterritorialization
- Domino Theory
- Electoral Geography
- Frontiers
- Geopolitics
- Governance
- Hegemony
- Imperialism
- Military Geography
- Nation
- Nationalism
- Political Geography
- Public Policy, Geography of
- Redistricting
- Regional Governance
- Socialism and Geography
- Sovereignty
- State
- Supranational Integration
- Territory
- Transnationalism
- War, Geography of
- World-Systems Theory
- Human Geography: Social and Cultural Geography
- Accessibility
- Antiglobalization
- Antisystemic Movements
- Architecture and Geography
- Art and Geography
- Automobility
- Blindness and Geography
- Body, Geography of
- Built Environment
- Census
- Census Tracts
- Childhood Spatial and Environmental Learning
- Children, Geography of
- Citizenship
- Civil Society
- Class, Geography and
- Communications Geography
- Consumption, Geographies of
- Crime, Geography of
- Cultural Geography
- Cultural Landscape
- Cyberspace
- Demographic Transition
- Diaspora
- Diffusion
- Digital Divide
- Disability, Geography of
- Distance Decay
- Drugs, Geography of
- Education, Geographies of
- Elderly, Geography and the
- Emotions, Geography and
- Ethnicity
- Ethnic Segregation
- Everyday Life, Geography and
- Extreme Geography
- Famine, Geography of
- Fear, Geographies of
- Fertility Rate
- Film and Geography
- Folk Culture and Geography
- Gays and Lesbians, Geography and/of
- Genocide, Geographies of
- Geodemographics
- Geographical Ignorance
- Geographical Imagination
- Geography Education
- Geomancy
- Geophagy
- Geoslavery
- Hate, Geographies of
- Historical Geography
- Home
- Human Rights, Geography and
- Hunger
- Identity, Geography and
- Immigration
- Indigeneity
- Inequality and Geography
- Justice, Geography of
- Languages, Geography and/of
- Law, Geography of
- Literature, Geography and
- Masculinities and Geography
- Media and Geography
- Mental Maps
- Migration
- Mobility
- Mortality Rate
- Music and Sound, Geography and
- Natural Growth Rate
- Nonvisual Geographies
- Palimpsest
- Patriarchy, Geography and
- Photography, Geography and
- Pilgrimage
- Place Names
- Place Promotion
- Popular Culture, Geography and
- Population Density
- Population Geography
- Population Pyramid
- Psychoanalysis, Geography and
- Racial Segregation
- Refugees
- Religion, Geography and
- Resistance, Geographies of
- Segregation and Geography
- Sexuality, Geography and/of
- Social Geography
- Social Justice
- Spatial Cognition
- Spatial Cognitive Engineering
- Spatial Inequality
- Sports, Geography of
- Surveillance
- Symbolism and Place
- Television and Geography
- Terrorism, Geography of
- Time, Geographies of
- Toponymy
- Topophilia
- Tourism
- Travel Writing, Geography and
- Vernacular Landscapes as Expressions of Environmental Ideas
- Video Games, Geography and
- Virtual Geographies
- Wayfinding
- Whiteness
- Wine, Geography of
- Human Geography: Urban Geography
- Commuting
- Counterurbanization
- Exurbs
- Filtering
- Gated Community
- Gentrification
- Ghetto
- Growth Machine
- Historic Preservation
- Homelessness
- Housing and Housing Markets
- Housing Policy
- Los Angeles School
- Metropolitan Area
- Neighborhood
- New Urbanism
- Not in My Backyard (NIMBY)
- Participatory Planning
- Primate Cities
- Public Housing
- Public-Private Partnerships
- Public Space
- Rank-Size Rule
- Rent-Gap
- Rural-Urban Migration
- Settlement Geography
- Smart Growth
- Squatter Settlements
- Suburban Land Use
- Suburbs and Suburbanization
- Sunbelt
- Sustainable Cities
- Township and Range System
- Urban and Regional Development
- Urban and Regional Planning
- Urban Ecology
- Urban Environmental Studies
- Urban Gardens
- Urban Geography
- Urban Green Space
- Urban Hierarchy
- Urbanization
- Urban Land Use
- Urban Planning and Geography
- Urban Policy
- Urban Spatial Structure
- Urban Sprawl
- Urban Underclass
- World Cities
- Zoning
- Nature and Society: Agriculture
- Agricultural Biotechnology
- Agricultural Intensification
- Agricultural Land Use
- Agriculture, Industrialized
- Agriculture, Preindustrial
- Agrobiodiversity
- Agrochemical Pollution
- Agroecology
- Agrofoods
- Agroforestry
- Aquaculture
- Bush Fallow Farming
- Centers of Domestication
- Crop Genetic Diversity
- Crop Rotation
- Environmental Impacts of Agriculture
- Fish Farming
- Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
- Indigenous Agriculture
- Marine Aquaculture
- Mixed Farming
- Organic Agriculture
- Shifting Cultivation
- Sustainable Agriculture
- Nature and Society: Environment and People
- Adaptive Harvest Management
- Biotechnology and Ecological Risk
- Carrying Capacity
- Chipko Movement
- Class, Nature and
- Corporate Voluntary Environmental Initiatives and Self-Regulation
- Coupled Human and Animal Systems
- Coupled Human and Natural Systems
- Critical Studies of Nature
- Cultural Ecology
- Deep Ecology Movements
- Deforestation
- Desertification
- Domestication of Animals
- Domestication of Plants
- Ecofeminism
- Ecological Economics
- Ecological Footprint
- Ecological Imaginaries
- Ecological Justice
- Ecological Modernization
- Ecological Regimes
- Ecological Risk Analysis
- Ecological Zones
- Ecotourism
- Energy Models
- Energy Policy
- Environmental Certification
- Environmental Discourse
- Environmental Entitlements
- Environmental Ethics
- Environmental History
- Environmental Imaginaries
- Environmental Impact Assessment
- Environmental Impacts of Cities
- Environmental Impacts of Manufacturing
- Environmental Impacts of Oil Fields
- Environmental Impacts of Pipelines
- Environmental Impacts of Roads
- Environmental Impacts of Tourism
- Environmental Impacts of War
- Environmental Impact Statement
- Environmental Justice
- Environmental Law
- Environmental Management
- Environmental Management: Drylands
- Environmental Perception
- Environmental Planning
- Environmental Protection
- Environmental Racism
- Environmental Refugees
- Environmental Restoration
- Environmental Rights
- Environmental Security
- Environmental Services
- Environment and Development
- Ethnicity and Nature
- Everglades Restoration
- Fair Trade and Environmental Certification
- Feminist Environmental Geographies
- Feminist Environmentalism
- Feminist Political Ecology
- Forest Degradation
- Forest Fragmentation
- Forest Land Use
- Forest Restoration
- Game Ranching
- Gender and Nature
- Global Environmental Change
- Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change
- Human Ecology
- Hunting and Gathering
- Hybridization of Plant and Animal Species
- Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas
- Indigenous Environmental Knowledge
- Indigenous Environmental Practices
- Indigenous Forestry
- Indigenous Reserves
- Industrial Ecology
- Intergovernmental Environmental Organizations and Initiatives
- Land Degradation
- Land Reform
- Landscape Architecture
- Landscape Biodiversity
- Landscape Design
- Landscape Ecology
- Landscape Interpretation
- Landscape Quality Assessment
- Landscape Restoration
- Land Tenure
- Land Tenure Reform
- Land Use
- Land Use Analysis
- Land Use and Cover Change (LUCC)
- Land Use History
- Land Use Planning
- Locally Unwanted Land Uses (LULUs)
- Market-Based Environmental Regulation
- Mining and Geography
- Multistakeholder Participation
- Nature
- Nature-Society Theory
- Neoliberal Environmental Policy
- Neo-Malthusianism
- Nomadic Herding
- Nomadism
- Open Space
- Parks and Reserves
- Pesticides
- Pest Management
- Political Ecology
- Population and Land Degradation
- Population and Land Use
- Population, Environment, and Development
- Prairie Restoration
- Race and Nature
- Regional Environmental Planning
- Science, Technology, and Environment
- Social and Economic Impacts of Climate Change
- Social Construction of Nature
- Social Forestry
- Soil Conservation
- Soil Degradation
- Soil Depletion
- Soil Erosion
- Suitability Analysis
- Sustainability Science
- Sustainable Fisheries
- Sustainable Forestry
- Sustainable Production
- Urban Metabolism
- Urban Storm Water Management
- Urban Sustainability
- Urban Water Supply
- Wilderness
- Wine Terroir
- Wise Use Movement
- Xeriscaping
- Nature and Society: Hazards and Disasters
- Avalanches
- Bhopal, India, Chemical Disaster
- Chernobyl Nuclear Accident
- Coastal Hazards
- Differential Vulnerabilities to Hazards
- Disaster Prediction and Warning
- Disaster Preparedness
- Drought Risk and Hazard
- Flash Floods
- Floods
- Gender and Environmental Hazards
- Hurricane Katrina
- Hurricanes, Risk and Hazard
- Landslide
- Natural Hazards and Risk Analysis
- Oil Spills
- Remote Sensing in Disaster Response
- Risk Analysis and Assessment
- Three Mile Island Nuclear Accident
- Tsunami
- Tsunami of 2004, Indian Ocean
- Volcanic Eruptions as Risk and Hazard
- Vulnerability, Risks, and Hazards
- Wildfires: Risk and Hazard
- Nature and Society: Pollution and Waste
- Acid Rain
- Ambient Air Quality
- Atmospheric Pollution
- Brownfields
- Chemical Spills, Environment, and Society
- Coastal Dead Zones
- Coastal Zone and Marine Pollution
- Greenhouse Gases
- Heavy Metals as Pollutants
- Herbicides
- Landfills
- Love Canal
- Nonpoint Sources of Pollution
- Photochemical Smog
- Point Sources of Pollution
- Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
- Recycling of Municipal Solid Waste
- Urban Solid Waste Management
- Waste Incineration
- Wastewater Management
- Water Pollution
- Nature and Society: Resources and Conservation
- Biofuels
- Coal
- Common Pool Resources
- Common Property Resource Management
- Commons, Tragedy of the
- Community-Based Conservation
- Community-Based Environmental Planning
- Community-Based Natural Resource Management
- Community Forestry
- Conservation
- Conservation Zoning
- Distribution of Resource Access
- Energy Resources
- Extractive Reserves
- Geothermal Energy
- Governmentality and Conservation
- Greenbelts
- Green Building
- Green Design and Development
- Hydroelectric Power
- Landscape and Wildlife Conservation
- Nonrenewable Resources
- Nuclear Energy
- Open-Pit Mining
- Patches and Corridors in Wildlife Conservation
- Petroleum
- Political Economy of Resources
- Renewable Resources
- Resource Economics
- Resource Geography
- Resource Management, Decision Models in
- Resource Tenure
- Spatial Strategies of Conservation
- Strip Mining
- Timber Plantations
- Tree Farming
- Wind Energy
- Woodfuel
- Nature and Society: Water
- Indigenous Water Management
- International Watershed Management
- Public Water Services
- Water Degradation
- Water Management and Treatment
- Water Needs
- Watershed Management
- Watershed Yield
- Water Supply Siting and Management
- Methods, Models, and GIS: Cartography
- Altitude
- Argumentation Maps
- Cadastral Systems
- Cartograms
- Cartography
- Choropleth Maps
- Color in Map Design
- Coordinate Geometry
- Coordinate Systems
- Coordinate Transformations
- Countermapping
- Dasymetric Maps
- Data Classification Schemes
- Datums
- Dot Density Maps
- Earth's Coordinate Grid
- Ecological Mapping
- Electronic Atlases
- Environmental Mapping
- Equator
- Flow Maps
- Gazetteers
- Geodesy
- Geolibraries
- Geometric Correction
- Geometric Measures
- Indigenous Cartographies
- Isopleth Maps
- Land Use and Land Cover Mapping
- Latitude
- Longitude
- Map Algebra
- Map Animation
- Map Design
- Map Evaluation and Testing
- Map Generalization
- Map Projections
- Map Visualization
- Multimedia Mapping
- Multivariate Mapping
- Participatory Mapping
- Poles, North and South
- Portolan Charts
- Resource Mapping
- Self-Organizing Maps
- Surveying
- Trap Streets
- Typography in Map Design
- Virtual Globes
- Voronoi Diagrams
- Methods, Models, and GIS: GIS
- Analytical Operations in GIS
- Business Models for Geographic Information Systems
- CAD Systems
- Cellular Automata
- Client-Server Architecture
- Collaborative GIS
- Conflation
- Critical GIS
- Database Management Systems
- Database Versioning
- Data Compression Methods
- Data Editing
- Data Format Conversion
- Data Indexing
- Data Querying in GIS
- Digital Terrain Model
- Digitizing
- Distributed Computing
- Dynamic and Interactive Displays
- Enterprise GIS
- Error Propagation
- Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis
- Geocoding
- Geocollaboration
- Geocomputation
- Geographic Information Systems
- Geospatial Semantic Web
- GIS, Environmental Model Integration and
- GIScience
- GIS Design
- GIS Implementation
- GIS in Archaeology
- GIS in Disaster Response
- GIS in Environmental Management
- GIS in Health Research and Health Care
- GIS in Land Use Management
- GIS in Local Government
- GIS in Public Policy
- GIS in Transportation
- GIS in Urban Planning
- GIS in Utilities
- GIS in Water Management
- GIS Software
- GIS Web Services
- Global Positioning System
- Google Earth
- Ground Reference Data
- Heuristic Methods in Spatial Analysis
- High-Performance Computing
- Humanistic GIScience
- Internet GIS
- Interoperability and Spatial Data Standards
- Legal Aspects of Geospatial Information
- Linear Referencing and Dynamic Segmentation
- Location-Based Services
- Metadata
- Mobile GIS
- Neogeography
- Network Analysis
- Network Data Model
- Ontological Foundations of Geographical Data
- Open Geodata Standards
- Open Source GIS
- Privacy and Security of Geospatial Information
- Public Participation GIS
- Scale in GIS
- Semantic Interoperability
- Semantic Reference Systems
- Spatial Data Infrastructures
- Spatial Data Integration
- Spatial Data Mining
- Spatial Data Models
- Spatial Data Structures
- Spatial Decision Support Systems
- Spatialization
- Supervised Classification
- Temporal GIS
- Temporal Resolution
- Terrain Analysis
- Three-Dimensional Data Models
- Topological Relationships
- Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) Data Model
- Unsupervised Classification
- Usability of Geospatial Information
- Vagueness in Spatial Data
- Vectorization
- Viewshed Analysis
- Virtual and Immersive Environments
- Web Geoprocessing Workflows
- Web Service Architectures for GIS
- Methods, Models, and GIS: Qualitative Techniques
- Fieldwork in Human Geography
- Interviewing
- Participant Observation
- Participatory Learning and Action
- Participatory Rural Appraisal
- Positionality
- Qualitative Methods
- Writing
- Methods, Models, and GIS: Quantitative Models
- Agent-Based Models
- Bayesian Statistics in Spatial Analysis
- Ecological Fallacy
- Fieldwork in Physical Geography
- Geographically Weighted Regression
- Geostatistics
- Location-Allocation Modeling
- Location Quotients
- Modifiable Areal Unit Problem
- Multivariate Analysis Methods
- Point Pattern Analysis
- Quantitative Methods
- Shortest-Path Problem
- Spatial Analysis
- Spatial Autocorrelation
- Spatial Econometrics
- Spatial Interaction Models
- Spatial Interpolation
- Spatial Multicriteria Evaluation
- Spatial Optimization Methods
- Spatial Statistics
- Methods, Models, and GIS: Remote Sensing
- Aerial Imagery: Data
- Aerial Imagery: Interpretation
- Atmospheric Remote Sensing
- Biophysical Remote Sensing
- Energy and Human Ecology
- Geosensor Networks
- Image Enhancement
- Image Fusion
- Image Interpretation
- Image Processing
- Image Registration
- Image Texture
- Imaging Spectroscopy
- LiDAR and Airborne Laser Scanning
- Microwave/RADAR Data
- Multispectral Imagery
- Multitemporal Imaging
- Object-Based Image Analysis
- Panchromatic Imagery
- Photogrammetric Methods
- Radiometric Correction
- Radiometric Normalization
- Radiometric Resolution
- Remote Sensing
- Remote Sensing: Platforms and Sensors
- Spatial Resolution
- Spectral Characteristics of Terrestrial Surfaces
- Spectral Resolution
- Spectral Transformations
- Stereoscopy and Orthoimagery
- Thermal Imagery
- History of Geography
- Annales School
- Anthropogeography
- Antipodes
- Berkeley School
- Biblical Mapping
- Cartography, History of
- Chicago School
- Chorology
- Darwinism and Geography
- Enlightenment
- Environmental Determinism
- Exploration
- GIS, History of
- Human Geography, History of
- Lewis and Clark Expedition
- Modernity
- Physical Geography, History of
- Quantitative Revolution
- Race and Empire
- Sequent Occupance
- Social Darwinism
- T-in-O Maps
- People, Organizations, and Movements: Biographies
- Abler, Ronald
- Agamben, Giorgio
- Agnew, John
- al-Idrisi
- Anaximander
- Anselin, Luc
- Antevs, Ernst
- Aristotle
- Armstrong, Marc
- Barrows, Harlan
- Batty, Michael
- Berry, Brian
- Biruni
- Blaikie, Piers
- Blaut, James
- Bourghassi, Carmina
- Bowman, Isaiah
- Bunge, William
- Buttimer, Anne
- Câmara, Gilberto
- Castells, Manuel
- Chorley, Richard
- Chrisman, Nicholas
- Christaller, Walter
- Clark, Andrew
- Clark, William
- Columbus, Christopher
- Cook, Captain James
- Cosgrove, Denis
- Dangermond, Jack
- Darby, Henry Clifford
- Davis, William Morris
- Dear, Michael
- Dendrochronology
- Desert Varnish
- Diamond, Jared
- Earle, Carville
- Eastman, Ronald
- Egenhofer, Max
- Eratosthenes
- Febvre, Lucien
- Fisher, Peter
- Fotheringham, A. Stewart
- Frank, Andrew
- Gama, Vasco da
- Getis, Arthur
- Giddens, Anthony
- Gilbert, Grove Karl
- Golledge, Reginald
- Goodchild, Michael
- Goode, J. Paul
- Gottmann, Jean
- Gould, Peter
- Gregory, Derek
- Guyot, Arnold
- Hägerstrand, Torsten
- Haggett, Peter
- Hanson, Susan
- Harley, Brian
- Hartshorne, Richard
- Harvey, David
- Haushofer, Karl
- Hayden, Ferdinand
- Herodotus
- Hettner, Alfred
- Hipparchus
- Hou Renzhi
- Hoyt, Homer
- Humboldt, Alexander von
- Huntington, Ellsworth
- Ibn Battuta
- Ibn Khaldün
- Isard, Walter
- Jackson, John Brinckerhoff
- Jefferson, Thomas
- Johnston, R. J.
- Kant, Immanuel
- Kates, Robert
- Köppen, Wladimir
- Kropotkin, Peter
- Kuhn, Werner
- Kwan, Mei-Po
- Lefebvre, Henri
- Lewis, Peirce
- Ley, David
- Lillesand, Thomas
- Livingstone, David
- Lösch, August
- Lynch, William
- MacEachren, Alan
- Mackinder, Sir Halford
- Magellan, Ferdinand
- Mahan, Alfred Thayer
- Marcus, Melvin G.
- Mark, David M.
- Marsh, George Perkins
- Massey, Doreen
- Mather, John Russell
- Maury, Matthew Fontaine
- McKnight, Tom L.
- Meinig, Donald
- Mercator, Gerardus
- Miller, Harvey J.
- Mitchell, Don
- Monmonier, Mark
- Morrill, Richard
- Morse, Jedediah
- Nyerges, Timothy
- Okabe, Atsuyuki
- Olsson, Gunnar
- Ortelius
- Parsons, James
- Peet, Richard
- Penck, Walther
- Peuquet, Donna
- Pickles, John
- Powell, John Wesley
- Pred, Allan
- Ptolemy
- Raisz, Erwin
- Ratzel, Friedrich
- Reclus, Élisée
- Relph, Edward
- Ritter, Carl
- Rose, Gillian
- Sauer, Carl
- Schaefer, Fred
- Scott, Allen
- Semple, Ellen Churchill
- Smith, Neil
- Soja, Edward
- Storper, Michael
- Strabo
- Strahler, Arthur
- Sui, Daniel
- Taylor, Griffith
- Taylor, Peter
- Thales
- Thornthwaite, C. Warren
- Thrift, Nigel
- Tobler, Waldo
- Tomlinson, Roger
- Trewartha, Glenn
- Troll, Carl
- Tuan, Yi-Fu
- Turner, Billie Lee, II
- Unwin, David
- Vance, James
- Varenius
- Vidal de la Blache, Paul
- Virilio, Paul
- Waldseemüller, Martin
- Walker, Richard
- Watts, Michael
- Weber, Alfred
- White, Gilbert
- Whittlesey, Derwent
- Wilson, John
- Wittfogel, Karl
- Wood, Denis
- Wright, Dawn
- Wright, John Kirtland
- Zelinsky, Wilbur
- People, Organizations, and Movements: Geographical Organizations
- American Geographical Society
- Association of American Geographers
- Association of Geographic Information Laboratories for Europe
- Canadian Association of Geographers
- Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers
- Institute of British Geographers
- International Geographical Union
- National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis
- National Council for Geographic Education
- National Geographic Society
- Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC)
- Open Source Geospatial Foundation
- Regional Science Association International (RSAI)
- Royal Geographical Society
- Russian Geographical Society
- University Consortium for Geographic Information Science
- People, Organizations, and Movements: Political and Economic Organizations
- African Union
- Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
- Association of Southeast Asian Nations
- Commonwealth of Independent States
- Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)
- European Union
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
- International Criminal Court
- International Monetary Fund
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
- North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
- North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
- Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
- United Nations
- World Bank
- World Court
- World Trade Organization (WTO)
- People, Organizations, and Movements: Scientific Organizations
- United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
- United Nations Environmental Summits
- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
- United States Census Bureau
- United States Geological Survey (USGS)
- World Health Organization (WHO)
- World Summit on Sustainable Development
- People, Organizations, and Movements: Social Movements
- Antisystemic Movements
- Chipko Movement
- Deep Ecology Movements
- European Green Movements
- International Environmental Movements
- International Environmental NGOs
- Movimento Sem Terra
- Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)
- Not in My Backyard (NIMBY)
- Social Movements
- Via Campesina (International Farmers' Movement)
About the Editor
Barney Warf is a professor of geography at the University of Kansas. His research and teaching interests lie within the broad domain of human geography. Much of his career effort concerns economic geography, with an emphasis on producer services and telecommunications. His work straddles contemporary political economy and social theory on the one hand and traditional quantitative, empirical approaches on the other. He has studied, among other things, New York as a global city, telecommunications, offshore banking, international networks of financial and producer services, and the geographies of the Internet. He has also written on military spending, voting technologies, the U.S. Electoral College, and religious diversity in different national contexts. He has coauthored or coedited 6 books, including 2 textbooks, 35 book chapters, and 90 refereed journal articles. He has served or serves on the editorial boards of Geographical Review, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Growth and Change, The Professional Geographer, Urban Geography, International Regional Science Review, and Geografiska Annaler. His articles have appeared in the Annals, The Professional Geographer, Economic Geography, Urban Geography, Political Geography, Geographical Review, Regional Studies, Urban Studies, Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, International Regional Science Review, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, Area, The Southeastern Geographer, Environment and Planning A and D, and Journal of Geography. His teaching interests include urban and economic geography, the history of geography, globalization, social theory, and East Asia. This is the second encyclopedia he has edited.
Contributors
Scott R. Abella, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Yohannes Aberra, Addis Ababa University
Damian Absalon, University of Silesia
Michael Adams, University of Wollongong
Fenda Aminata Akiwumi, University of South Florida
Todd H. Albert, Bowling Green State University
Jochen Albrecht, Hunter College CUNY
Josep Antoni Alcover, Institut Mediterrani d'Estudis Avançats (CSIC-UIB)
Derek H. Alderman, East Carolina University
Jared Aldstadt, State University of New York at Buffalo
David E. Alexander, University of Florence
Melinda Alexander, Arizona State University
Saleem H. Ali, University of Vermont
John All, Human Environment Linkages Program
John Logan Allen, University of Wyoming
Scott Anderson, State University of New York at Cortland
Sharolyn Anderson, University of Denver
Gennady Andrienko, Fraunhofer Institute IAIS
Natalia Andrienko, Fraunhofer Institute IAIS
Yuko Aoyama, Clark University
Seth Appiah-Opoku, University of Alabama
J. Clark Archer, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Kevin Archer, University of South Florida
Santa Arias, University of Kansas
Richard Peter Armitage, University of Salford
Michael Christopher Armstrong, DePaul University
David L. Arnold, Frostburg State University
Jennifer S. Arrigo, East Carolina University
R. Rochelle Arrington, Florida State University
Yasushi Asami, University of Tokyo
Bjørn Asheim, Lund University
Walker S. Ashley, Northern Illinois University
Genevieve Atwood, University of Utah
Ivonne Audirac, Florida State University
Louis Awanyo, Luther College, University of Regina
Rikke Baastrup, Danish Cancer Society
Andrew J. Bach, Western Washington University
Sharmistha Bagchi-Sen, State University of New York at Buffalo
John E. Bailey, University of Alaska
Keiron Bailey, University of Arizona
Mark Ian Bailey, University of Newcastle upon Tyne
Robert G. Bailey, USDA Forest Service
Robert Bailis, Yale University
Earl J. Baker, Florida State University
John Richard Bale, Keele University
Shivanand Balram, Simon Fraser University
Greg J. Bamber, Griffith University
Abhijit Banerjee, Northeastern Illinois University
Aniruddha Banerjee, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis
Kezia Barker, Birkbeck University of London
Justin R. Barnes, North Carolina Solar Center
Trevor J. Barnes, University of British Columbia
Clive Barnett, Open University
Keith Barney, York University
Stewart Barr, University of Exeter
Roger G. Barry, University of Colorado
Bipasha Baruah, California State University, Long Beach
S. Willis Bassett, Florida State University
Pratyusha Basu, University of South Florida
Ranu Basu, York University
Dean Bavington, Nipissing University
Jamie Baxter, University of Western Ontario
Ryan E. Baxter, Pennsylvania State University
Kate Beard-Tisdale, University of Maine
Hartmut Behr, Newcastle University
Matthew F. Bekker, Brigham Young University
Scott Bell, University of Saskatchewan
Thomas L. Bell, University of Tennessee
Karina Benessaiah, McGill University
Lawrence D. Berg, University of British Columbia
Susan Bergeron, West Virginia University
Richelle M. Bernazzoli, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Ruggero Bertani, Enel
Nicholas L. Betts, Queen's University Belfast
Kirsten M. M. Beyer, University of Iowa
William Beyers, University of Washington
Keshav Bhattarai, University of Central Missouri
Ling Bian, University at Buffalo
Jess Bier, City University of New York, Graduate Center
Phil Birge-Liberman, Syracuse University
Mark D. Bjelland, Gustavus Adolphus College
Chris Blackden, University of Kentucky
Stefano Bloch, University of Minnesota
Andrew Blohm, University of Maryland
Talja Blokland, Institut für Sozialwissenschaften
Darcy Boellstorff, Bridgewater State College
Hans-Georg Bohle, University of Bonn, Germany
Gregory S. Bohr, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
Lowe Börjeson, Stockholm University
Saturnino M. Borras Jr., Erasmus University Rotterdam
Keith Bosak, University of Montana
Fernando Javier Bosco, San Diego State University
Pablo Bose, University of Vermont
Brian H. Bossak, Georgia Southern University
Pere Bover, Institut Mediterrani d'Estudis Avançats (CSIC-UIB)
Dawn S. Bowen, University of Mary Washington
John Bowen, Central Washington University
Mark W. Bowen, University of Kansas
Ben Bradshaw, University of Guelph
Richard R. Brandt, Salem State College
Anthony J. Brazel, Arizona State University
Leah Bremer, San Diego State University/University of California, Santa Barbara
Amanda DeeAnn Briney, California State University, East Bay
Ray Bromley, University at Albany, SUNY
John O. Browder, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Dwight A. Brown, University of Minnesota
Marilyn A. Brown, Georgia Institute of Technology
Michael Brown, University of Washington
Alec Brownlow, DePaul University
Joe Bryan, University of Colorado, Boulder
Karin Bryan, University of Waikato
William R. Buckingham, University of Wisconsin at Madison
Michaela Buenemann, New Mexico State University
Rebecca Burnett, University of Washington
Amy C. Burnicki, University of Wisconsin
Jeffrey Bury, University of California, Santa Cruz
Jason Byrne, Griffith University
John Byrne, University of Delaware
Maria Caffrey, University of Tennessee
David A. Call, Ball State University
Angus Cameron, University of Leicester
Harrison S. Campbell Jr., University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Étienne Cantin, Université Laval
Huhua Cao, University of Ottawa
Andrew M. Carleton, Pennsylvania State University
David L. Carr, University of California, Santa Barbara
John I. Carruthers, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Eric D. Carter, Grinnell College
Jennifer L. Carter, University of the Sunshine Coast
Norman Carter, San Diego State University
Guillermo Castilla, University of Calgary
Noel Castree, Manchester University
Brian Ceh, Ryerson University
Ryan Centner, Tufts University
Jayajit Chakraborty, University of South Florida
Charlotte N. L. Chambers, Otago University
Kang-Tsung (Karl) Chang, Kainan University
Thomas Chapman, Old Dominion University
Igal Charney, University of Haifa
Omair Chaudhry, Ordnance Survey
Deborah Che, Independent Scholar
DongMei Chen, Queen's University
Jin Chen, Pennsylvania State University
Nalini Chhetri, Arizona State University
Netra B. Chhetri, Arizona State University
Timothy M. Chowns, University of West Georgia
Nicholas Chrisman, Université Laval
George Christakos, San Diego State University
Torben R. Christensen, Lund University
Brett Christophers, Uppsala University
Robert W. Christopherson, American River College/Geosystems
Julie Cidell, University of Illinois
Eric Clark, Lund University
Jennifer Clark, Georgia Institute of Technology
Abigail R. Clarke-Sather, Michigan Technological University
Sebastian Cobarrubias, University of North Carolina
Sharon C. Cobb, University of North Florida
Craig A. Coburn, University of Lethbridge
David M. Cochran Jr., University of Southern Mississippi
Alisa W. Coffin, U.S. Geological Survey
David Cohen, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Kim M. Cohen, Utrecht University
Jill S. M. Coleman, Ball State University
Ashley R. Coles, University of Arizona
Elizabeth R. Congdon, Georgia Southern University
Heather Congdon Fors, University of Gothenburg
Jamison Conley, Pennsylvania State University
Dennis Conway, Indiana University
Michael P. Conzen, University of Chicago
Karen S. Cook, University of Kansas
Jon Corbett, University of British Columbia-Okanagan
Dov Corenblit, King's College London
Marci Cottingham, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Lloyd L. Coulter, San Diego State University
Rosie Cox, Birkbeck, University of London
James Craine, California State University, Northridge
Valorie A. Crooks, Simon Fraser University
John A. Cross, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh
Sean M. Crotty, San Diego State University
Jeff R. Crump, University of Minnesota
Karen Culcasi, West Virginia University
Julie Cupples, University of Canterbury
Judd Michael Curran, Grossmont College
Giorgio Hadi Curti, San Diego State University
Kevin M. Curtin, George Mason University
Scott Curtis, East Carolina University
Donald C. Dahmann, George Washington University
Peter H. Dana, University of Texas at Austin
Raju J. Das, York University
Conny Davidsen, University of Calgary
Fiona M. Davidson, University of Arkansas
Joyce Davidson, Queen's University
Jason Davis, University of California, Santa Barbara
Alastair Dawson, Aberdeen Institute for Coastal Science and Management
Shari Daya, University of Cape Town
Anthony P. D'Costa, Asia Research Centre
Mark de Socio, Salisbury University
Keith G. Debbage, University of North Carolina–Greensboro
Eric Delmelle, University of Charlotte, North Carolina
Urška Demšar, National University of Ireland, Maynooth
Hannes Dempewolf, University of British Columbia
Mary Dengler, Royal Holloway, University of London
Elizabeth R. DeSombre, Wellesley College
Pierre Desrochers, University of Toronto Mississauga
Pauline Deutz, University of Hull
Boris Dev, San Diego State University
Raymond J. Dezzani, University of Idaho
Jose R. Diaz-Garayua, Kent State University
Jacqui Dibden, Monash University
Jason Dittmer, University College London
Jerome E. Dobson, University of Kansas
Katarina Doctor, George Mason University
Klaus Dodds, Royal Holloway
William Donner, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Richard Donohue, University of Wisconsin–Madison
Ronald I. Dorn, Arizona State University
Percy H. Dougherty, Lehigh County/Kutztown University
Ian Douglas, University of Manchester
Victoria S. Downey, University of Minnesota
Joni A. Downs, University of South Florida
Suzana Dragicevic, Simon Fraser University
Christine Drennon, Trinity University
Jiunn-Der Duh, Portland State University
Robert A. Dull, University of Texas at Austin
Michael Dunford, University of Sussex
Cheryl Morse Dunkley, University of Vermont
Jeffrey Dunn, University of Connecticut
Leslie A. Duram, Southern Illinois University
Joshua D. Durkee, Western Kentucky University
Chris S. Duvall, University of New Mexico
Mark J. Dwyer, University of Cambridge
Robert Edsall, University of Minnesota
Stephen L. Egbert, University of Kansas
Patricia Ehrkamp, University of Kentucky
Kajsa Ellegård, Linköping University
Deborah L. Elliott-Fisk, University of California, Davis
Jean T. Ellis, University of Southern California
James B. Elsner, Florida State University
Michael Emch, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Ewald Engelen, University of Amsterdam
Dirk Enters, Universität Bremen
Stefan Erasmi, University of Goettingen
Christine Eriksen, University of Wollongong
Tahire Erman, Bilkent University
Veronica Escamilla, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Jamey Essex, University of Windsor
Jürgen Essletzbichler, University College, London
Lawrence E. Estaville, Texas State University
Andres Etter, Javeriana University
Frances Fahy, National University of Ireland, Galway
Juliet J. Fall, Université de Genève
Carol Farbotko, University of Tasmania
Kathleen A. Farley, San Diego State University
David Featherstone, University of Glasgow
Tobias Federwisch, Friedrich-Schiller–Universität Jena
Robert Feick, University of Waterloo
Michael P. Ferber, King's University College
Dinali Nelun Fernando, Rutgers University
Carlos Ferras, University of Santiago de Compostela
Peter F. Ffolliott, University of Arizona
Richard Field, University of Nottingham
Brian L. Finlayson, University of Melbourne
Manfred M. Fischer, Vienna University of Economics and Business
Peter Fisher, University of Leicester
Robin Flowerdew, University of St. Andrews
Steven Flusty, York University
Emily A. Fogarty, Suffolk County Community College
Kenneth Foote, University of Colorado at Boulder
Timothy W. Foresman, Johnson, Mirmiran & Thompson, Inc.
Benjamin Forest, McGill University
Jennifer Forkes, University of Toronto
A. Stewart Fotheringham, National University of Ireland, Maynooth
Witold Fraczek, ESRI
Grant Fraley, San Diego State University
Richard V. Francaviglia, University of Texas at Arlington
Benjamin Fraser, Christopher Newport University
James Freeman, Concordia University
Lisa M. Freeman, University of Toronto
Hugh M. French, University of Ottawa
Kenneth French, University of Wisconsin–Parkside
Karen E. Frey, Clark University
Anders Friis-Christensen, Joint Research Center, Aalborg University
Joy A. Fritschle, West Chester University
Patricia Frontiera, San Francisco Estuary Institute
Christopher M. Fuhrmann, University of North Carolina
Jayson J. Funke, Clark University
Maia Gachechiladze, Central European University
Karsten Gaebler, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena
Stefan Gaertner, Institute for Work and Technology
Jennifer L. Gagnon, Virginia Tech
J. C. Gaillard, University of Grenoble
Francis A. Galgano, Villanova University
Nikolaos Galiatsatos, Durham University
Nick Gallent, University College London
Ryan E. Galt, University of California, Davis
Julia A. Gamas, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Peng Gao, Syracuse University
Isabel-María García-Sánchez, University of Salamanca
Rita Gardner, Royal Geographical Society and Institute of British Geographers
Gregg M. Garfin, University of Arizona
Rebecca R. Gasper, University of Maryland
Roland Gehrels, University of Plymouth
Jonathan Henry Geisler, Georgia Southern University
Christian Geißler, Universität Tübingen
Paul Gepts, University of California, Davis
Peter Gething, University of Oxford
Gennady Gienko, University of the South Pacific, Fiji
Alan Gilbert, University College London
Aaron Gilbreath, University of Kansas
Robert Welch Gillespie, Population Communication
Thomas Gillespie, University of California, Los Angeles
Jessey Gilley, University of Kansas
Mark Giordano, International Water Management Institute
François Girard, CEMAGREF
Sonya Glavac, University of New England, Australia
Brian J. Godfrey, Vassar College
Joseph Godlewski, University of California, Berkeley
Christopher Malcolm Gold, University of Glamorgan
Daniel W. Goldberg, University of Southern California
Dominic Golding, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Michael F. Goodchild, University of California, Santa Barbara
Hugh S. Gorman, Michigan Technological University
Alan Grainger, University of Leeds
Dennis Grammenos, Northeastern Illinois University
Nicholas Gray, University College London
Michael R. Greenberg, Rutgers University
Richard P. Greene, Northern Illinois University
Nicholas Grenier, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
William J. Gribb, University of Wyoming
Carl J. Griffin, Queen's University, Belfast
Liza Griffin, University of Westminster
Daniel A. Griffith, University of Texas at Dallas
John R. Grimes, Eastern Kentucky University
Karl Grossner, University of California, Santa Barbara
Diansheng Guo, University of South Carolina
Barry Haack, George Mason University
Karl R. Haapala, Michigan Technological University
Joshua Hagen, Marshall University
Chris Hagerman, Portland State University
Euan Hague, DePaul University
Martin J. Haigh, University of Chicago
David Hall, University of Greenwich
Sarah J. Halvorson, University of Montana
Jeffrey D. Hamerlinck, University of Wyoming
Dean M. Hanink, University of Connecticut
Kathy Hansen Crawford, Montana State University
Paul E. Hardwick, San Diego State University Research Foundation
James W. Harrington Jr., University of Washington
Richard Harris, McMaster University
Trevor M. Harris, West Virginia University
John Harrison, Loughborough University
Francis J. Harvey, University of Minnesota
David Havlick, University of Colorado–Colorado Springs
Kingsley E. Haynes, George Mason University
John W. Hearne, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
Brent Hecht, Northwestern University
C. Patrick Heidkamp, Southern Connecticut State University
Michael K. Heiman, Dickinson College
Carola Hein, Bryn Mawr College
Eileen H. Helmer, USDA Forest Service
Sabine Henning, United Nations, Population Division
Jeffrey W. Henquinet, Michigan Technological University
John Heppen, University of Wisconsin–River Falls
Martin Herold, Global Observation for Forest and Land Cover Dynamics
Darrel Hess, City College of San Francisco
Amy E. Hessl, West Virginia University
Nina Hewitt, York University
Miriam Helen Hill, Jacksonville State University
Tobin Hindle, Florida Atlantic University
William Hipwell, Victoria University of Wellington
Kyle R. Hodder, University of Regina
Briavel Holcomb, Rutgers University
Meg Holden, Simon Fraser University
William N. Holden, University of Calgary
Peter J. Holmes, University of the Free State
Mark W. Horner, Florida State University
Peter Hossler, University of Georgia
Chris Houser, Texas A&M University
Serin D. Houston, Syracuse University
Thomas Frederick Howard, Armstrong Atlantic State University
Richard Howitt, Macquarie University
Shunfu Hu, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville
Matthew T. Huber, Clark University
Matthew B. Hufford, University of California, Davis
Christopher Hugenholtz, University of Lethbridge
Peter J. Hugill, Texas A&M University
Hilary Hungerford, University of Kansas
Thomas A. Hutton, Centre for Human Settlemen Vancouver
Niem Tu Huynh, Texas State University–San Marcos
Sungsoon Hwang, DePaul University
Kevin Hyde, University of Montana
Jennifer Hyndman, Syracuse University
Jonathan Iliffe, University College London
Jungho Im, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Moshe Inbar, University of Haifa
Jack D. Ives, Carleton University
Andrés D. Izeta, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicasy Técnicas
Mark Jackson, University of Bristol
Trish Jackson, University of Kansas
R. Daniel Jacobson, University of Calgary
Donald G. Janelle, University of California, Santa Barbara
Marta Jankowska, San Diego State University
Piotr Jankowski, San Diego State University
Krzysztof Janowicz, University of Muenster
Helen Jarvis, Newcastle University
Timothy L. Jenkins, Michigan Technological University
Ryan R. Jensen, Brigham Young University
Erika S. Jermé, University of Toronto
Jason Bryan Jindrich, Brown University
Scott Jiusto, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Pascale Joassart-Marcelli, San Diego State University
Ola Johansson, University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown
Jennifer Johns, University of Liverpool
Corey M. Johnson, University of North Carolina–Greensboro
Diana N. Johnson, Geosciences Consultants
Donald L. Johnson, University of Illinois
Douglas L. Johnson, Clark University
Jay T. Johnson, University of Kansas
Merrill Johnson, University of New Orleans
Nicholas H. Johnson, Michigan Technological University
Timothy Lawrence Johnson, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
William C. Johnson, University of Kansas
Zachary Forest Johnson, University of Texas
Ron Johnston, University of Bristol
Andrew E. G. Jonas, University of Hull
David Jordhus-Lier, University of Manchester
Gabriel Judkins, Arizona State University
Patricia Julio-Miranda, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí
Jaan-Henrik Kain, Chalmers University of Technology
Ronald V. Kalafsky, University of Tennessee
Ezekiel Kalipeni, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Nagaraj Kanala, Ohio State University
Pavlos Kanaroglou, McMaster University
Kristin Kane, Global Footprint Network
David H. Kaplan, Kent State University
Hassan A. Karimi, University of Pittsburgh
Aharon Kellerman, University of Haifa
John Kelly, University of Kansas
Ilan Kelman, Center for International Climate and Environmental Research, Oslo
Thomas Kemeny, University of California, Los Angeles
Paul S. Kench, University of Auckland
Dylan Keon, Oregon State University
Thembela Kepe, University of Toronto
Carsten Keßler, University of Münster
Lisa Keys-Mathews, University of North Alabama
Lawrence Morara Kiage, Georgia State University
Changjoo Kim, University of Cincinnati
Daehyun Kim, Texas A&M University
Richard Kingston, University of Manchester
Scott Kirsch, University of North Carolina
Danielson R. Kisanga, Miami University Middletown
Erik Kjems, Aalborg University
Dorothea Kleine, Royal Holloway, University of London
Alexander Klippel, Pennsylvania State University
Dan Klooster, University of Redlands
Gerrit Jan Knaap, University of Maryland
Lawrence Knopp, University of Washington, Tacoma
Audrey Kobayashi, Queen's University
Julia Koschinsky, Arizona State University
John Kostelnick, Illinois State University
Ashish Kothari, Kalpavriksh
Kraig H. Kraft, University of California, Davis
Barry Kronenfeld, George Mason University
Rob J. Krueger, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Richard Kujawa, St. Michael's College
Lado Kurdgelashvili, University of Delaware
Hiroyuki Kusaka, University of Tsukuba
Kristopher Kuzera, San Diego State University
Reginald Yin-Wang Kwok, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Derrick Yuk Fo Lai, McGill University
Jennifer S. Lalley, University of the Witwatersrand
Marcus B. Lane, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia
Ruth Lane, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
Andrei G. Lapenas, University at Albany
Soren C. Larsen, University of Missouri
Stephen S. Y. Lau, University of Hong Kong
Ian T. Lawson, University of Leeds
Yves-François Le Lay, National Center for Scientific Research, University of Lyon
James L. LeBeau, Southern Illinois University Carbondale
Valerie Ledwith, National University of Ireland, Galway
Jonathan Leib, Old Dominion University
Robin M. Leichenko, Rutgers University
Walter Leimgruber, University of Fribourg
Michael Leitner, Louisiana State University
Dave Lemberg, Western Michigan University
Jonathan D. Lepofsky, Independent Scholar
Samuli Leppälä, Turku School of Economics
Deborah Leslie, University of Toronto
Agnieszka Leszczynski, University of Washington
Shawn Lewers, Florida State University
Laura R. Lewis, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Martin W. Lewis, Stanford University
Selma Lewis, University of Maryland
Mei-Hui Li, National Taiwan University
Wei Li, Arizona State University
Xingong Li, University of Kansas
Zhilin Li, Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Johan Liebens, University of West Florida
Joshua Lieberman, Traverse Technologies
Arika Ligmann-Zielinska, Michigan State University
Yangrong Ling, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Christopher D. Lippitt, San Diego State University
Lisa Jordan, Florida State University
Emanuele Lobina, University of Greenwich
Tatiana Loboda, University of Maryland
Gary Lock, Oxford University
Mahtab A. Lodhi, University of New Orleans
Alex Loftus, Royal Holloway, University of London
Paul A. Longley, University College London
Anna Carla Lopez, San Diego State University
Andrew Lothian, Scenic Solutions
Alexander Malcolm Lovell, Queen's University
Chris Lukinbeal, University of Arizona
Jan Lundqvist, Stockholm University, Sweden
Jennifer K. Lynes, University of Waterloo
William S. Lynn, Williams College
Kin M. Ma, Grand Valley State University
Juliana A. Maantay, Lehman College, City University of New York
Neil Macdonald, University of Liverpool
William Mackaness, University of Edinburgh
Virginia W. MacLaren, University of Toronto
Phil Macnaghten, Durham University
Alan D. MacPherson, University at Buffalo
Yahia Mahmoud, Lund University
Minelle Mahtani, University of Toronto
Philippe Maillard, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
Jacek Malczewski, University of Western Ontario
Melissa L. Malin, Northland College
Julia Mambo, University of the Witwatersrand
Charles Manyara, Radford University
Everisto Mapedza, International Water Management Institute
Jennifer Mapes, University of Southern California
Hug March Corbella, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
W. Andrew Marcus, University of Oregon
Bryan G. Mark, Ohio State University
Philip M. Marren, University of Melbourne
Stuart E. Marsh, University of Arizona
Lisa Marshall, University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill
Richard A. Marston, Kansas State University
Robert J. Mason, Temple University
Aron Massey, Kent State University
Joy Nystrom Mast, Carthage College
Christine W. Mathenge, Indiana University
Anne E. Mather, University of Plymouth
Ian J. Mauro, University of Victoria
Jeff May, University of Toronto
Chris Mayda, Eastern Michigan University
Clive McAlpine, University of Queensland
James McCarthy, Pennsylvania State University
Linda McCarthy, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
George F. McCleary Jr., University of Kansas
Sarah McCormack, University of Kentucky
Daniel McGowin, Florida State University
Molly McGraw, Southeastern Louisiana University
Sara McLafferty, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Brenden E. McNeil, West Virginia University
Thomas G. Measham, CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems
David B. Mechem, University of Kansas
Kimberley E. Medley, Miami University
Lars Meier, Institute for Employment Research (IAB)
Mariselle Meléndez, University of Illinois
Assefa M. Melesse, Florida International University
Jaymie R. Meliker, Stony Brook University
Tom Mels, University of Gotland, Sweden
V. Ernesto Méndez, University of Vermont
Qingmin Meng, University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Timothy Mennel, American Planning Association
Jessica Mercer, Macquarie University
Christopher D. Merrett, Western Illinois University
Peter Merriman, Aberystwyth University
Peter Meserve, Fresno City College
Victor Mesev, Florida State University
Sara Metcalf, State University of New York at Buffalo
Sandra Metoyer, Texas A&M University
Michelle Marie Metro-Roland, Indiana University
Peter Meusburger, Heidelberg University
Burghard C. Meyer, Technische Universität Dortmund
Bryon D. Middlekauff, Plymouth State University
Byron Miller, University of Calgary
Jennifer Miller, University of Texas at Austin
Matthew Miller, University of Georgia
Hugh Millward, Saint Mary's University
Phillipa Marlis Mitchell, University of Auckland
Ivan Mitin, Russian Institute for Cultural & Natural Heritage
Ines M. Miyares, Hunter College
Sami Moisio, University of Turku, Finland
Mariana Mondini, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas
Burrell Montz, East Carolina University
Debnath Mookherjee, Western Washington University
Toby Moore, RTI International
Bruno Moriset, University of Lyon–Jean Moulin
Penny L. Morrill, Memorial University of Newfoundland
Richard Morrill, University of Washington
William G. Moseley, Macalester College
Alison Mountz, Syracuse University
Aditi Mukherji, International Water Management Institute
Joshua Muldavin, Sarah Lawrence College
Samantha L. Muller, Macquarie University
Tiffany Muller Myrdahl, University of Minnesota
Beverley Mullings, Queen's University
Dustin R. Mulvaney, University of California, Santa Cruz
A. Sebastián Muñoz, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicasy Tecnológicas
Yuji Murayama, University of Tsukuba
James T. Murphy, Clark University
Alan T. Murray, Arizona State University
Brian Murton, University of Hawaii
Christine Mango Mutiti, Miami University
Garth Myers, University of Kansas
Soe Win Myint, Arizona State University
Harini Nagendra, Indiana University
David Nally, University of Cambridge
Nazanin Naraghi, Simon Fraser University
Rizwan Nawaz, University of Leeds
Elisabeth S. Nelson, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
David J. Nemeth, University of Toledo
Markus Neteler, Fondazione Edmund Mach
Benjamin Newton, Southern Illinois University
Andrea Joslyn Nightingale, University of Edinburgh
Silvia Nittel, University of Maine
Bram F. Noble, University of Saskatchewan
Emma Norman, University of British Columbia
Fungisai Nota, Wartburg College
Samuel Nunn, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis
Benjamin Kofi Nyarko, University of Cape Coast
Timothy Nyerges, University of Washington
Ann M. Oberhauser, West Virginia University
Nancy J. Obermeyer, Indiana State University
Karen L. O'Brien, University of Oslo
Segun Ogunjemiyo, California State University, Fresno
Oladele Ogunseitan, University of California, Irvine
Shannon O'Lear, University of Kansas
Thomas O'Loughlin, University of Wales, Lampeter
John A. Olson, Syracuse University
Ola Olsson, University of Gothenburg
Giok-Ling Ooi, Nanyang Technological University
Kathleen O'Reilly, Texas A&M University
Ibrahim M. Oroud, Mu'tah University
William Y. Osei, Algoma University
Francis Owusu, Iowa State University
Tonny J. Oyana, Southern Illinois University
Rachel Pain, Durham University
Joni M. Palmer, University of Colorado at Boulder
Anupam Pandey, St. Mary's University, Halifax
Maria Paradiso, University of Sannio
Mark Paterson, University of Exeter
Marianna Pavlovskaya, Hunter College
Serge Payette, Centre d’études nordiques
Margaret Wickens Pearce, Ohio University
Mauri S. Pelto, Nichols College
Jim Penn, Grand Valley State University
Clifford Pereira, Royal Geographical Society
Reed Perkins, Queens University of Charlotte
George L. W. Perry, University of Auckland
Evelyn J. Peters, University of Saskatchewan
Frederick E. Petry, Naval Research Laboratory
Martin Phillips, University of Leicester
Alan G. Phipps, University of Windsor
James B. Pick, University of Redlands
Jenny Pickerill, University of Leicester
Michael Pidwirny, University of British Columbia-Okanagan
Sonja K. Pieck, Bates College
Bruce Pietrykowski, University of Michigan–Dearborn
Stephanie Pincetl, U.S. Forest Service/University of California, Los Angeles
John S. Pipkin, State University of New York
Tara M. Plewa, University of South Carolina
Thomas Poiker, Simon Fraser University
George Pomeroy, Shippensburg University
Robert Gilmore Pontius Jr., Clark University
Jessie P. H. Poon, State University of New York at Buffalo
Barbara S. Poore, U.S. Geological Survey
Gregory A. Pope, Montclair State University
Gabriel Popescu, Indiana University South Bend
Deborah E. Popper, College of Staten Island/City University of New York
William Todd Powell, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
José-Manuel Prado-Lorenzo, University of Salamanca
Valerie Preston, York University
Patricia L. Price, Florida International University
Narcisa Gabriela Pricope, University of Florida
Jesse Proudfoot, Simon Fraser University
Ruiliang Pu, University of South Florida
Hardy Pundt, University of Applied Sciences Harz
Virginia Pungo, Independent Scholar
Darren Purcell, University of Oklahoma
Heather R. Putnam, University of Kansas
Xiaomin Qiu, Missouri State University
Steven Quiring, Texas A&M University
Grzegorz Rachlewicz, Adam Mickiewicz University
Elspeth Rae, University of New South Wales
Atiqur Rahman, Jamia Millia Islamia University
Steven James Rainey, McNeese State University
Kevin Ramsey, University of Washington
Mahesh Rao, Humboldt State University
Samuel Ratick, Clark University
Martin Raubal, University of California, Santa Barbara
Julia Rauchfuss, University of Minnesota
Lisa Rausch, University of Kansas
Steven Reader, University of South Florida
S. M. Reaney, Durham University
Rajyashree Reddy, University of Minnesota
Maureen G. Reed, University of Saskatchewan
Tim Reiffenstein, Mount Allison University
Wolfgang Peter Reinhardt, UniBw Muenchen
Dennis Reinhartz, University of Texas at Arlington
Robert N. Renner, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Lynn M. Resler, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Kevon Christopher Rhiney, University of the West Indies
Pedro Ribeiro de Andrade, National Institute for Space Research
Edward Rice, City University of New York
Robert A. Rice, Smithsonian Institution
Douglas Richardson, Association of American Geographers
Mathieu Richaud, California State University, Fresno
Jeffrey P. Richetto, University of Alabama
Laurie S. Richmond, University of Minnesota
Claus Rinner, Ryerson University
George F. Roberson, University of Massachusetts
David J. Roberts, University of Toronto
David J. Robinson, Syracuse University
George W. Robinson, Michigan Technological University
Pamela Robinson, School of Urban and Regional Planning
Peter J. Robinson, University of North Carolina
Wilder Robles, University of Manitoba
Agustin Robles-Morua, Michigan Technological University
Dianne E. Rocheleau, Clark University
Gilbert L. Rochon, Purdue University, Purdue Terrestrial Observatory
Christine M. Rodrigue, California State University, Long Beach
Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Hofstra University
Paul Rollinson, Missouri State University
José Luis Romanillos, University of Bristol
Adam Rose, University of Southern California
Deborah Bird Rose, Macquarie University
William I. Rose, Michigan Technological University
Mark W. Rosenberg, Queen's University
Amy Ross, University of Georgia
David A. Rossiter, Huxley College, Western Washington University
Robert E. Roth, Pennsylvania State University
Robin J. Roth, York University
Graham D. Rowles, University of Kentucky
Shouraseni Sen Roy, University of Miami
James M. Rubenstein, Miami University
Simón Ruiz, Mediterranean Institute for Advanced Studies
Bradley C. Rundquist, University of North Dakota
Matthias Ruth, University of Maryland
Stephanie Rutherford, Macalester College
Alan Saalfeld, Ohio State University
Dorothy Sack, Ohio University
Ahmad Safi, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Robin Saha, University of Montana
Dipti Saletore, University at Buffalo
David S. Salisbury, University of Richmond
Luis Sánchez, Universidad de los Andes
Heather Sander, University of Minnesota
Mary V. Santelmann, Oregon State University
Antoinette W. Satterfield, Kansas State University
David Saurí, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
Nathan F. Sayre, University of California, Berkeley
Bastian Schaeffer, University of Muenster
Michael E. Schaepman, University of Zurich
Simon Scheider, University of Muenster
Kolson Schlosser, Clarkson University
Ginger L. Schmid, Minnesota State University
Thomas W. Schmidlin, Kent State University
Dietrich Schmidt-Vogt, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Laura C. Schneider, Rutgers University
Justin T. Schoof, Southern Illinois University
Yda Schreuder, University of Delaware
Zachary N. Schulman, George Washington University
Nadine Schuurman, Simon Fraser University
Joan M. Schwartz, Queen's University
Leonard J. Scinto, Florida International University
Christopher Scott, University of Arizona
Leonie Seabrook, University of Queensland
David Seamon, Kansas State University
Anne-Marie Séguin, Insitut National de la Recherche Scientifique
Christian Sellar, University of Mississippi
Jason C. Senkbeil, University of Alabama
Bongman Seo, Hitotsubashi University
Susanna Servello, University of Parma
Gary W. Shannon, University of Kentucky
Martha B. Sharma, National Cathedral School
Ian Graham Ronald Shaw, University of Arizona
Shih-Lung Shaw, University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Marshall Shepherd, University of Georgia
Douglas J. Sherman, Texas A&M
Kathleen Sherman-Morris, Mississippi State University
Xun Shi, Dartmouth College
Michael Shin, University of California, Los Angeles
Takeshi Shirabe, Vienna University of Technology
John F. Shroder, University of Nebraska at Omaha
J. Matthew Shumway, Brigham Young University
Laura Kathryn Siebeneck, University of Utah
Jennifer J. Silver, Simon Fraser University
Sunhui Sim, Florida State University
Daniel Simberloff, University of Tennessee
Nicole Simons, San Diego State University
Alex David Singleton, University College London
Todd Sink, Indiana State University
Henry Sivak, University of California, Los Angeles
Emily Skop, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs
André Skupin, San Diego State University
Adrian Smith, Queen Mary, University of London
Janet L. Smith, University of Illinois at Chicago
Jeffrey S. Smith, Kansas State University
Jonathan M. Smith, Texas A&M University
William James Smith Jr., University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Thomas A. Smucker, Ohio University
Michael Solem, Association of American Geographers
Barry D. Solomon, Michigan Technological University
Kean Huat Soon, Pennsylvania State University
André Sorensen, University of Toronto
John Sorensen, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Catherine Souch, Royal Geographical Society
Jane Southworth, University of Florida
Dale Splinter, University of Wisconsin–Whitewater
Dana Sprunk, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena
Anna Stanley, National University of Ireland, Galway
David Stea, Center for Global Justice
Johannes Steiger, University Blaise Pascal Geolab
Philip E. Steinberg, Florida State University
Stefan Steiniger, University of Calgary
Susanne Stenbacka, Uppsala University
Rolf Sternberg, Montclair State University
Kristin L. Stewart, Florida State University
Olof Stjernström, Umeå University
Kristin Stock, University of Nottingham
Glenn Davis Stone, Washington University
Roger R. Stough, George Mason University
Douglas Alan Stow, San Diego State University
Jeppe Strandsbjerg, Copenhagen Business School
Elaine Stratford, University of Tasmania
Daniel Z. Sui, Ohio State University
Selima Sultana, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Björn Surborg, University of British Columbia
Laurel Suter, University of California, Santa Barbara
John W. Sutherland, Michigan Technological University
Paul C. Sutton, University of Denver
Brendan Sweeney, Queen's University
Martin Swobodzinski, San Diego State University
Mattias Tagseth, Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Tyson Taylor, Boise State University
Yvette Taylor, Newcastle University
Philippe M. Teillet, University of Lethbridge
Rajiv Thakur, University of South Alabama
Rajesh Bahadur Thapa, University of Tsukuba
Lisa Theo, University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point
Colin Edward Thorn, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Jane R. Thorngren, San Diego State University
Jocelyn Thorpe, University of British Columbia
Grant Thrall, University of Florida
Graham A. Tobin, University of South Florida
Marina A. Tolmacheva, American University of Kuwait
Brian Tomaszewski, Pennsylvania State University
R. Tomlinson, Queen's University Belfast
Daoqin Tong, University of Arizona
Nancy K. Torrieri, American Community Survey Office
Ramzi Touchan, University of Arizona
Kostas A. Triantis, University of Oxford
Ming-Hsiang Tsou, San Diego State University
Lysandros Tsoulos, National Technical University of Athens
Steven Tufts, York University
Benjamin Tuttle, University of Denver
James Tyner, Kent State University
Elizabeth Underwood-Bultmann, University of Washington
Jon Unruh, McGill University
Michael A. Urban, University of Missouri
Julie Urbanik, University of Missouri–Kansas City
Philip Edward van Beynen, University of South Florida
Hein-Anton van der Heijden, University of Amsterdam
Mark van der Meijde, International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC)
Harald van der Werff, International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC)
Thom van Dooren, University of Technology, Sydney
Corné P. J. M. van Elzakker, International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC)
Scott Van Keuren, University of Vermont
William M. Van Lopik, College of Menominee Nation
Dalia Varanka, U.S. Geological Survey
Maria Vasardani, University of Maine
Stefano Vassere, Archivio dei nomi di luogo, Bellinzona, Switzerland
Geir Vatne, Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Elizabeth Vaughan, Ball State University
Gregory L. Vert, University of Nevada
Paolo Vignolo, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá
Robert Voeks, California State University, Fullerton
Igor Vojnovic, Michigan State University
Tim Vorley, University of Cambridge
Monica Wachowicz, Wageningen University and Research Centre
Mathis Wackernagel, Global Footprint Network
Roland M. Wagner, University of Muenster
Jayme Walenta, University of British Columbia
Johnathan Walker, James Madison University
Alan Walks, University of Toronto
Candice Wallace, University of Kentucky
Julie Wallace, McMaster University
Andy Walter, University of West Georgia
Sarah M. Wandersee, San Diego State University
Enru Wang, University of North Dakota
Jinfei Wang, University of Western Ontario
Shaowen Wang, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Wenfei Winnie Wang, University of Bristol
Yi-Chen Wang, National University of Singapore
Young-Doo Wang, University of Delaware
Barney Warf, University of Kansas
Timothy A. Warner, West Virginia University
John F. Watkins, University of Kentucky
Peter Waylen, University of Florida
Joe Weber, University of Alabama
John R. Weeks, San Diego State University
Robert Weibel, University of Zurich
Tony Weis, University of Western Ontario
Sally A. Weller, Victoria University
Jeremy Wells, Clemson University
Qihao Weng, Indiana State University
Elizabeth A. Wentz, Arizona State University
Benno Werlen, Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena
George W. White, Frostburg State University
Mark Whitehead, Aberystwyth University
Robert J. Whittaker, University of Oxford
Thomas J. Wilbanks, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Wolfgang Wilcke, Johannes Gutenberg University
Margaret Wilder, University of Arizona
Forrest D. Wilkerson, Minnesota State University
Richard Wilkie, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Michael Williams, Oxford University
Stewart Williams, University of Tasmania
Cort J. Willmott, University of Delaware
Carl Wilmsen, University of California, Berkeley
David Wilson, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Matthew W. Wilson, University of Washington
Gordon M. Winder, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität
Jamie Winders, Syracuse University
Antoinette M. G. A. WinklerPrins, Michigan State University
Morton D. Winsberg, Florida State University
Ben Wisner, Oberlin College
Frank Witlox, Ghent University
Eric B. Wolf, University of Colorado
Poh Poh Wong, National University of Singapore
Joseph S. Wood, University of Baltimore
Jared Wouters, City Colleges of Chicago
Pamela Wridt, University of Colorado Denver
Dawn J. Wright, Oregon State University
Ningchuan Xiao, Ohio State University
Zhen Xiong, University of New Brunswick
Bisheng Yang, Wuhan University
Lakshman Yapa, Pennsylvania State University
Robert Yarbrough, Georgia Southern University
Stephen R. Yool, University of Arizona
Kenneth R. Young, University of Texas at Austin
Donald M. Yow, Eastern Kentucky University
Hongbo Yu, Oklahoma State University
May Yuan, University of Oklahoma
Kathryn Yusoff, University of Exeter
Alessandro Zanazzi, Georgia Southern University
Peyman Zawar-Reza, University of Canterbury
Donald J. Zeigler, Old Dominion University
Chuanrong Zhang, University of Connecticut
Tong Zhang, Wuhan University of Technology
Yun Zhang, University of New Brunswick
Dennis Zhao, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Tingting Zhao, Florida State University
Wolfgang Zierhofer, University of Basel
Kaj Zimmerbauer, University of Oulu
Matija Zorn, Scientific Research Centre of SASA
Ashley B. Zung, University of Kansas
Alex Zvoleff, San Diego State University
Introduction
Long misunderstood by the general public as an elementary field limited to drawing boundaries and memorizing capital cities, contemporary geography exhibits, in contrast, a fecund, robust, and increasingly sophisticated understanding of the world. Previously confined to the margins of academia and earning little respect, geography in the past four decades has been decisively transformed into an innovative and dynamic field that has earned the respect, even the admiration, of scholars in the sciences, humanities, and social sciences.
Literally “earth description” (geo-graph), geography may broadly be defined as the art and science of understanding the space of Earth's surface. At its simplest, geography studies the locations of things and the explanations that underlie spatial distributions of different types. Fundamentally, geographers ask “Why are things where they are?” Now, such a wide definition obscures the enormous diversity of the discipline and the multiple meanings of space itself. Space may mean, for example, the biophysical surface of Earth, an arena of class confrontation, or an intangible set of meanings. Geography is notorious, even infamous, for its eclecticism and for the very wide range of topics that it addresses. Not only do geographers tackle a great span of issues, but they do so from a multitude of theoretical and conceptual angles. Some fear that this diversity robs the discipline of a central narrative: At first glance, quantitative geomorphologists and feminist deconstructivists might seem to share little in common. Moreover, geographers approach their issues from an astonishingly diverse set of conceptual perspectives, ranging from complex mathematical models and geographic information systems (GIS) to post-structuralist discourse analysis. Geography speaks with more than one voice, which is part of the key to its growing contemporary popularity and vitality. The various ways in which space can be understood will be discussed in more detail below.
The Rising Popularity of Geography TodayThe surge in geography's popularity today reflects much more than its own internal intellectual metamorphosis. Profound forces at work throughout the world have made geographical knowledge increasingly important to understanding numerous human dilemmas and our capacity to address them. Four of these are emphasized here: (1) globalization, (2) environmental destruction, (3) new geospatial technologies, and (4) cyberspace.
GlobalizationContrary to much received opinion, globalization—that complex set of often contradictory processes that operate at a transnational scale—has made geographical location more, not less, relevant. As neoliberal capital operates ever more effortlessly on a worldwide stage, small differences among regions become increasingly important. The persistent inequality between the global North and South, that is, the world's economically developed and underdeveloped regions, as well as continuing war and famine have drawn many people's attention to the role of space in perpetuating, and at times challenging, such problems. Moreover, far from simplistic and naive assertions about the “death of distance” or the “end of geography,” place has become increasingly central to the behavior of transnational corporations, trade, immigration, tourism, and global financial flows. Discourses of national competitiveness in a global economy thrive as place-centered ways of coping with increasingly mobile capital, which operates on a worldwide scale. Opposition to globalization, including terrorism, has also increased the importance of learning about other cultures. At a moment when more than half the human race lives in cities, questions of how urban areas are interconnected (or not) loom large, as does the need for an understanding of deeply geographical issues such as rural-to-urban migration. Rising inequality worldwide speaks to processes that have disproportionately favored the elites at the expense of the working classes and the poor. For many people, matters of social justice are thus inescapably spatial ones. Increasingly, what happens in one part of the world has important ramifications in other parts—a fundamentally geographic phenomenon. Moreover, globalization itself plays out in different ways in different places, so that the global and the local are deeply entangled with one another.
Contemporary globalization has also undermined commonly held notions of absolute, Euclidean space by forming linkages among disparate producers and consumers intimately connected over vast distances through flows of capital, information, and goods. In generating new landscapes twisted like origami and filled with wormholes, in giving rise to ever-changing patterns of centrality and peripherality, the tsunami of globalized timespace compression has forced many people to recognize that geographies are always and everywhere dynamic, incomplete, forever coming into being, and perpetually in flux. The period of rapid globalization in the late 20th and early 21st centuries was accompanied, not coincidentally, by an explosion of theoretical work in human geography, in which the discipline firmly came to view space as a social construction, embedded in its historical context and filled with political and cultural meanings. The relational perspective on the world's landscapes today, which depicts them in terms of flows, rhizomes, and networks, is a far cry from the archaic study of places as discrete, bounded, and isolated and has played a large role in electrifying human geography.
Environmental DestructionAnother patently obvious role that geography plays today concerns the rapidly rising seriousness of global ecological and environmental problems. Issues that once could be understood and contained within relatively localized contexts, such as air or water pollution, are increasingly approachable only on a worldwide basis. Acid rain crosses national borders with ease. The enormous crisis of biodiversity unfolding across the world is inseparable from global patterns of population growth, habitat destruction, deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, and resource consumption. The oceans have been confronted with systematic over-fishing and coastal pollution, including agricultural runoff and chemical spills. As protection and preservation of the environment have risen on the political agenda, geographers’ work in these domains has gained attention accordingly. Hazards, such as the devastating Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004, have drawn the attention of worldwide audiences. The 2010 earthquake in Haiti triggered a response from millions around the globe. Combating global transmissions of diseases, such as AIDS, entails a geographical understanding of their genesis and diffusion. Limited global supplies of resources, including petroleum, have helped elevate the notion of the limits to growth in popular consciousness.
And of course, looming over all these issues is the dark shadow of global warming: As evidence mounts daily of rapidly melting ice caps and glaciers, of rising sea levels and more extreme weather events, of ecosystems turned upside down overnight and mass extinctions, the origins, impacts, and control of greenhouse gases have become increasingly problematic issues. Because environmental issues are unevenly distributed across space and because geography as a discipline has a long history of investigating humanenvironment interactions, space and spatiality have become crucial dimensions in understanding and tackling these problems.
Geospatial TechnologiesGeography and cartography have always been close cousins, and for many people, mapping is their first entry into the world of spatial analysis. As technologies for surveying, mapping, and monitoring Earth's surface have proliferated in number, accuracy, and sophistication, geographical awareness about Earth's surface, both popular and academic, has grown correspondingly. Geospatial technologies, including GIS, global positioning systems (GPS), remote sensing, and location-based services, have infiltrated many corners of everyday life. Many cars and cell phones today have them. The enormous flood of data that such techniques have generated have allowed geographers to study the world's social and environmental issues in novel ways, testing models and hypotheses, enhancing forecasting abilities, and attracting widespread attention and enthusiasm. Increasingly, mapping has become not the preserve of an isolated elite group of experts but a popular activity, in which users create their own displays uniquely suited to their own contexts and problems. More people today create, disseminate, and use larger volumes of geographic information than ever before. Novel quantitative approaches (e.g., spatial autocorrelation) have supplemented the ability to understand spatial patterns in new and fecund ways. Indeed, many people would argue that such techniques form the engine that drives the growth of much academic geography. The engagement between human geographers and practitioners of GIS has opened fertile new fields to explore, including neogeography, humanistic GIS, and Web 2.0 mashups.
CyberspaceFinally, the rise of cyberspace and the Internet has also elevated issues of spatiality in several ways. The Internet, an unregulated electronic network connecting an estimated 1.7 billion people (or 26% of the planet) in 2009, allows users to transcend distance virtually instantaneously. Telecommunications systems have become the central technology of postmodern capitalism, vital not only to corporations but also to individual consumption, communication, entertainment, education, politics, and numerous other domains of social life. As Internet usage becomes more popular and widespread in nature, including diverse applications such as e-mail, online shopping, banking, airline and hotel reservations, multiplayer video games, electronic job searches, instant messaging, e-marketing, chat rooms, VOIP telephony, distance education, downloading of music and television shows, digital pornography, blogs, YouTube and MySpace, and simply “Googling” of information, cyberspace has profound effects on social relations, everyday lives, culture, politics, and many other spheres of social activity. Indeed, for many people who spend a great deal of time in the digital world, cyberspace has become such an important part of everyday life that the once solid boundary between the real and the virtual has essentially dissolved: It is difficult today to tell where one ends and the other begins. In allowing people and firms to “jump scale,” to connect effortlessly with others around the world at the click of a mouse, cyberspace has been instrumental in the production of complex, fragmented, jumbled spaces of postmodernity.
There are, of course, many other reasons why geography remains important. Shortages of resources including water as well as a dwindling oil supply have intensified competition for the remaining stocks. The world's oceans are being emptied of their food reserves and are suffering ecosystem collapse at dizzying rates. Massive, ongoing technological changes have led to a proliferation of new industries, occupations, and products, even as old ones disappear. Knowing where one is located is vital to knowing one's identity, and as spaces have been reconfigured, so, too, have individual and collective notions of self and the other. Poverty-stricken populations the world over have spoken out against the causes of their oppression and made their voices heard. Concerns over distant strangers have multiplied as geographical imaginations have expanded in the face of rising long-distance social and personal relations and media coverage. In short, in a world in which the future arrives all too soon, whenever larger numbers of people must daily contend with questions of difference, when nature repeatedly inserts itself into the news, matters of geography have become not a luxury but a necessity.
The Multiple Meanings of SpaceOne reason for the diversity of geographical knowledges is that space has many dimensions and can be understood in widely different ways.
Space as a Biophysical LandscapeSpace as the biophysical surface of the Earth is one such dimension. For physical geographers, Earth's surface has traditionally been seen as a set of atmospheric, hydrologic, biological, and geomorphologic processes. Biogeographers focus on the spatial distribution of life forms, as evolutionary forces have generated webs of ecological relations that vary enormously over time and space. Many physical geographers traditionally paid little attention to human dynamics and often felt that they had more in common with their intellectual brethren in geology, biology, or meteorology than they did with fellow geographers. Conversely, for many human geographers, the natural environment has amounted, at best, to a set of resources. However, the schism between physical and human geography is gradually closing, and increasingly, physical geographers have come to recognize that social activities must be taken seriously, just as many human geographers have slowly come to see that social relations do not simply unfold over a blank surface but are intensely wrapped up with a complicated natural terrain that exhibits a complex logic in its own right. Just as human geographers have grudgingly come to accept that the biophysical world does play an important role in shaping the distributions of human activity, so too have many physical geographers gradually acknowledged that nature does not simply exist outside society but is shaped by human beings and given meaning only within a variety of social contexts.
Space as Places That People Create and InhabitA second way in which space may be approached is as a set of places that people create and inhabit. Human geography—the analysis of how societies are stretched over Earth's surface—is thus the study of people in space in much the same way as history views people in time. Indeed, because space and time are inseparable, historical and geographical analyses are necessarily fused. Thus, human geography includes the study of how societies construct places, how different types of activities (cultural, economic, and political) are differentially located and connected, and how all these constantly change, with important ramifications for their inhabitants’ quality of life. Regional geographers have long been interested in the specific conjunctions of processes in individual locales, and the creative tension between understanding the unique and the general continues to reverberate throughout the discipline, as it has for centuries. The generation and transformation of human geographies occur at a variety of spatial scales, and scale has become important not only to cartographers but also to those seeking to understand how different social processes play out at different scales, ranging from the local to the global. Indeed, scale itself has widely become viewed as a human product. Some geographers focus on the most personal and intimate of scales, the body: While bodies appear as “natural,” or given, human geographers view them as social constructions, filled with gendered, racialized, and other meanings. Increasingly, as globalization has linked the planet's diverse societies into an increasingly integrated totality, it has become impossible to separate the local from the global. Integral to this perspective are questions regarding how people use the surface of the Earth, modify it, and in turn are affected by it. The interrelations between people and nature are a longstanding and hugely important part of the discipline. As the ties between human and physical geography have grown, many have rejected the long-standing notion that nature lies “outside” social relations; rather, everywhere, nature has been changed by people and been given meaning by them, even as it changes societies, a notion well encapsulated by relatively recent approaches such as political ecology.
Space as Representation of Earth's SurfaceThird, space exists as a set of representations of Earth's surface, the most literal meaning of geo-graph. Geography is concerned with much more than the tangible worlds of mountains or factories, rivers or farms; it also includes the study of how people bring the world into consciousness, make sense of it, and give it meaning. Cartography, for example, is perhaps the most common way in which geographical knowledge has been constructed throughout its history. Maps of one form or another date back deep into human prehistory, when hunters and gatherers formed their own symbolic geographies. Voluminous, detailed, often encyclopedic descriptions of the locations of places are another form of geographical representation.
Shortly after World War II, many geographers adopted the scientific method; using quantitative techniques, they initiated a tradition of modeling space that continues to this day. Geographical models take a diversity of forms and serve many different purposes, ranging from traffic planning to watershed analysis. Models are central to many academic and nonacademic applications of geography, as they simplify the dynamics of the world to reveal its causal properties. This tradition was greatly assisted by the rise of GIS, which allow for the integration and analysis of diverse forms of spatial information. Often integrated with remotely sensed high-altitude or satellite photography, GIS has become a hugely popular, powerful, and important part of the discipline.
In stark contrast, other geographers approached the question of spatial representation in a dramatically different way. The behavioral tradition explored mental maps and cognitive models of space. Humanistic geographers, drawing on a rich philosophical tradition of existentialism and phenomenology, are concerned with the textures of human experience, the role of language and discourse, and how individual understandings are wrapped up with social configurations of power and knowledge. Discourse analysis, which lies at the core of contemporary poststructuralist approaches, insists that geographic knowledges are always social in origin and social in consequence and thus inevitably linked to power interests.
A Very Brief Historical SketchGeography has a long, rich, and fascinating history. For any society to exist, it must create a landscape, and its geography is central to how it is organized and changes. Thus, as long as there have been human beings, there have been human geographies.
The history of geography is important because all ideas, including geographical ones, are embedded within and reflect their historical contexts. For example, classical Greek geography, which included both encyclopedic descriptions and mathematical treatises, reflected the location of city-states at the intersections of Africa, Asia, and Europe and the trade relations that sutured them together. In the medieval era, European geography labored under the yoke of theological suppression, and its intellectual development suffered according. Conversely, Arab geographers were among the world's best, skilled in mapping and providing rich portrayals of the places strewn throughout the Muslim ecumene.
During the Renaissance and Enlightenment, periods in which European empires extended their tentacles across the planet and the “West” as we know it began to come into being, cartography grew explosively—a testimony to geography's long history of service to imperial interests. Exploration and geography have long been tied together, but geography was vital in mapping the world's resources and understanding the diverse peoples falling under the tsunami of colonialism.
In the late 19th century, infected by a racist and unscientific form of Darwinism, geography in the form of environmental determinism was widely used to justify and naturalize colonial inequalities. Geopolitics became a central part of colonial rivalries, and political geography made its first appearance. Finally, new strains such as anarchist geography made their appearance. Simultaneously, geography became institutionalized within academia, with a variety of professional organizations and university departments.
In the early 20th century, retreating from the disaster of environmental determinism, geographers entombed themselves within empty empiricist descriptions—an era that continues to haunt the discipline's public image today. In this paradigm, the region, untheorized and taken for granted, ruled as the core of the geographer's craft. However, cultural geographers, such as Carl Sauer, paved the way for new understandings of landscapes as social creations, infusing the discipline with historical sensitivity.
Following World War II, scientific cartography was born. Armed with statistics and an enthusiasm for the scientific method, the quantitative revolution decisively transformed the field, offering a concern for methodological rigor, models, and conceptual abstraction. Physical geography, drawing on 19th-century roots, expanded into quantitative climatology, geomorphology, and biogeography.
The late 20th century and the current era gradually witnessed an intellectual renewal, which took various forms. Diverse schools of thought rejuvenated human geography, such as Marxism, feminism, humanistic thought, and, more recently, poststructuralism and postcolonialism. The discipline exhibited mounting methodological sophistication, including GIS, remote sensing, and quantitative modeling. Work concerned with the social construction of nature and humanenvironment relations began to heal the long-standing schism between human and physical geographers. Understandings of natural hazards, anthropogenic climate change, complexity theory, contingency and path dependency, gender, everyday life, race and ethnicity, Eurocentrism, sexuality, class, power, and uneven development proliferated. Long a borrower of ideas from other fields, geography today has experienced a renaissance that has made it increasingly interesting to nongeographers, as exemplified by the “spatial turn” widespread throughout the social sciences and humanities.
A Note on This ProjectThis encyclopedia sets for itself an ambitious task: to offer a reasonably comprehensive and useful summary of the state of the discipline in the early 21st century. As geographical knowledge has exploded in quantity, diversity, and sophistication, many people, including students and the informed lay public, find it difficult to know where to turn. This project attempts to fill that gap. No single project, of course, can do justice to the gargantuan amount of information that characterizes any discipline today; at best, it can hope only to trace the broad contours. Thus, readers should not expect the entries to attempt a comprehensive portrait of their topics; space limitations have forced the authors to focus only on the most important aspects of their respective essays. With 1,224 entries, the encyclopedia encapsulates an enormous diversity of topics in all subdisciplines. Cross-references at the end of each entry point to the innumerable connections among them, which, in conjunction with the suggestions for further readings, allow all readers to pursue topics as deeply as they wish. Because a picture is worth a thousand words, many entries are accompanied by art and graphics that lend depth and realism to the text. In addition to the more than 900 pieces of art in the A-to-Z entries, the encyclopedia includes an atlas with maps, found in the last volume.
To assist readers in locating relevant topics, the Reader's Guide at the beginning of Volume 1 decomposes geography into the six broad subject areas listed below. While the ones used here are relatively conventional, it should be noted that there are as many ways to organize geographical knowledge as there are geographers. (Indeed, geography is such a notoriously diverse and broad discipline that any categorization of it is bound to offend someone.) Note, too, that many topics defy easy categorization and belong to more than one grouping.
- Physical Geography
- Biogeography
- Climatology
- Geomorphology
- Human Geography
- Economic Geography
- Geographical Theory
- Medical Geography
- Political Geography
- Regional Geography
- Social and Cultural Geography
- Urban Geography
- Nature and Society
- Agriculture
- Environment and People
- Hazards and Disasters
- Pollution and Waste
- Resources and Conservation
- Water
- Methods, Models, and GIS
- Cartography
- GIS
- Qualitative Techniques
- Quantitative Models
- Remote Sensing
- History of Geography
- Cartography
- GIS
- Human Geography
- Physical Geography
- People, Organizations, and Movements
- Biographies
- Geographical Organizations
- Political and Economic Organizations
- Scientific Organizations
- Social Movements
AcknowledgmentsThis work is dedicated to all geographers, wherever they may be, past, present, and future.
A multivolume encyclopedia is such a large and complex undertaking that it demands the time and energy of a large number of people. So many people have contributed to this project that it is impossible to name them all. All I can do here is give my heartfelt thanks to all of those responsible for bringing these six volumes into being.
First, the bulk of the credit lies with the authors—all 942 of them, from dozens of countries—of the 1,224 entries, who agreed to write on their respective topics, often under short deadlines, revised their contributions as necessary, corrected me when I was wrong, and often came up with a wonderful array of graphics. Their works reveal the richness, diversity, and sophistication of contemporary geography, and I learned more from reading their contributions—1.78 million words—than I can put into words. I thank you all.
Second, the associate editors of this venture played an enormously valuable strategic role. Piotr Jankowski handled the GIS and cartography entries with aplomb; Barry Solomon rounded up a large number of skilled authors to write great essays on human-environmental relations; Mark Welford collected excellent physical geography entries with admirable grace; and Jonathan Leib, working quietly behind the scenes, served as an effective managing editor.
Third, the staff at SAGE demonstrated the utmost professionalism, working far beyond the call of duty. Rolf Janke and Robert Rojek served as acquisitions editors and made this encyclopedia possible. Diana Axelsen deserves special merit for her extraordinarily thorough review of each and every entry and helpful feedback. Among numerous other coordinators, assistants, copy editors, and graphics specialists who deserve a round of applause are Laura Notton, Yvette Pollastrini, Tracy Buyan, Eileen Gallaher, Leticia Gutierrez, Rebecca Johnson, Sheri Gilbert, and Shamila Swamy. Their meticulous assessment of all the contributions, identification of errors, suggestions for improvement, and patient corrections greatly improved the appearance and quality of the entire encyclopedia. There are many others who also lent a hand, and their work is much appreciated.
All these parties, with thousands of e-mails and often enduring drudgery, have worked tirelessly to produce a product of which they, and I, can be justly proud.
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