An information system—as opposed to concepts such as information technology (IT) or information and communication technology (ICT)—is a fairly old concept that appeared as the first commercial applications of the computer were developed at the dawn of the general systems theory era. According to Davis and Olson, a management information system, as the term is generally understood, is “an integrated, usermachine system for providing information to support operations, management, and decision-making functions in an organization. The system utilizes computer [Page 233]hardware and software; manual procedures; models for analysis planning, control, and decision-making; and a database.” The U.K. Academy of Information Systems (UKAIS) defines information systems as “the means by which people and organizations, utilizing technology, gather, process, store, use and disseminate information.”

There is no clear ...