
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods
Encyclopedias
- Reader's Guide
- Entries A-Z
- Subject Index
-
-
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E
- F
- G
- H
- I
- K
- L
- M
- N
- O
- P
- Q
- R
- S
- T
- U
- V
- W
-
174015- Loading...
-
Copyright
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
For information:
SAGE Publications, Inc.
2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
E-Mail: order@sagepub.com
SAGE Publications Ltd.
1 Oliver's Yard
55 City Road
London, EC1Y 1SP
United Kingdom
SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area
Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044
India
SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd.
33 Pekin Street #02-01
Far East Square
Singapore 048763
Printed in the United States of America.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The Sage encyclopedia of qualitative research methods / editor, Lisa M. Given.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-4129-4163-1 (cloth)
1. Social sciences—Research—Methodology—Encyclopedias. 2. Social sciences--Methodology—Encyclopedias. 3. Qualitative research—Encyclopedias. I. Given, Lisa M. II. Title: Encyclopedia of qualitative research methods.
H61.S234 2008
001.4′2—dc22
2008019323
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Publisher: Rolf A. Janke
Assistant to the Publisher: Michele Thompson
Developmental Editor: Diana E. Axelsen
Reference Systems Manager: Leticia Gutierrez
Production Editor: Kate Schroeder
Copy Editors: D. J. Peck, Renee Willers
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreaders: Kristin Bergstad, Anne Rogers
Indexer: David Luljak
Cover Designer: Michelle Lee Kenny
Marketing Manager: Amberlyn Erzinger
Editorial Board
General EditorLisa M. Given, University of Alberta
Managing EditorKristie Saumure, University of Alberta
Editorial BoardTom Barone, Arizona State University
Julianne Cheek, University of South Australia
Jean Clandinin, University of Alberta
John W. Creswell, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Norman K. Denzin, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Kimberly D. Elsbach, University of California, Davis
Ted Palys, Simon Fraser University
Judith Preissle, University of Georgia
Margarete Sandelowski, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Clive Seale, Uxbridge College
List of Entries
- . See
- . See
- . See
- . See
- . See
- . See
- . See
- . See
- . See
- . See
Reader's Guide
The Reader's Guide is designed to help you find specific entries in general subject areas in the encyclopedia, as well as to identify related entries that may interest you. The main headings (e.g., “Data Analysis”) provide quick snapshots of the range of categories covered in this volume, while the individual entries listed under each heading show the range of topics within those categories. Some topics (e.g., “Music in Qualitative Research”) are listed only once in the guide; others (e.g., “Diaries and Journals”) fall into more than one category. You are encouraged to scan through this list to get a clear sense of the scope of the volume, as well as the labels used for specific topics. As all of the entries are listed in alphabetical order, you can move quite quickly between this listing and the entries themselves in the body of the encyclopedia.
The Reader's Guide classifies entries into 16 general topical categories: Approaches and Methodologies; Arts-Based Research, Ties to; Associations, Centers, and Institutes; Computer-Assisted Data Analysis; Data Analysis; Data Collection; Dissemination and Writing; History of Qualitative Research; Participants; Quantitative Research, Ties to; Research Design and Planning; Research Ethics; Rigor; Textual Analysis, Ties to; and Theoretical and Philosophical Frameworks.
- Approaches and Methodologies
- Action Research
- Advocacy Research
- Aesthetics
- Applied Research
- Appreciative Inquiry
- Artifact Analysis
- A/r/tography
- Arts-Based Research
- Arts-Informed Research
- Autobiography
- Autoethnography
- Basic Research
- Biography
- Case Study
- Clinical Research
- Collaborative Research
- Community-Based Research
- Comparative Research
- Content Analysis
- Conversation Analysis
- Covert Research
- Critical Action Research
- Critical Arts-Based Inquiry
- Critical Discourse Analysis
- Critical Ethnography
- Critical Hermeneutics
- Critical Research
- Cross-Cultural Research
- Discourse Analysis
- Document Analysis
- Duoethnography
- Ecological Research
- Emergent Design
- Empirical Research
- Empowerment Evaluation
- Ethnodrama
- Ethnography
- Ethnomethodology
- Evaluation Research
- Evidence-Based Practice
- Explanatory Research
- Exploratory Data Analysis
- Feminist Research
- Field Research
- Foucauldian Discourse Analysis
- Genealogical Approach
- Grounded Theory
- Hermeneutics
- Heuristic Inquiry
- Historical Discourse Analysis
- Historical Research
- Historiography
- Indigenous Research
- Institutional Ethnography
- Institutional Research
- Interdisciplinary Research
- Internet in Qualitative Research
- Interpretive Inquiry
- Interpretive Phenomenology
- Interpretive Research
- Market Research
- Meta-Analysis
- Meta-Ethnography
- Meta-Synthesis
- Methodological Holism Versus Individualism
- Methodology
- Methods
- Mixed Methods Research
- Multicultural Research
- Narrative Analysis
- Narrative Genre Analysis
- Narrative Inquiry
- Naturalistic Inquiry
- Observational Research
- Oral History
- Orientational Perspective
- Para-Ethnography
- Participatory Action Research (PAR)
- Performance Ethnography
- Phenomenography
- Phenomenology
- Place/Space in Qualitative Research
- Playbuilding
- Portraiture
- Program Evaluation
- Q Methodology
- Readers Theater
- Social Justice
- Social Network Analysis
- Survey Research
- Systemic Inquiry
- Theatre of the Oppressed
- Transformational Methods
- Unobtrusive Research
- Value-Free Inquiry
- Virtual Ethnography
- Virtual Research
- Visual Ethnography
- Visual Narrative Inquiry
- Arts-Based Research, Ties to
- Aesthetics
- Artifact Analysis
- A/r/tography
- Arts-Based Research
- Arts-Informed Research
- Audience
- Autobiography
- Bricolage and Bricoleur
- Collage
- Connoisseurship
- Critical Arts-Based Inquiry
- Dance in Qualitative Research
- Dramaturgy
- Ethnodrama
- Ethnopoetics
- Fictional Writing
- Film and Video in Qualitative Research
- Literature in Qualitative Research
- Memoirs
- Multimedia in Qualitative Research
- Music in Qualitative Research
- Performance Ethnography
- Photographs in Qualitative Research
- Photonovella and Photovoice
- Place/Space in Qualitative Research
- Playbuilding
- Poetry in Qualitative Research
- Portraiture
- Readers Theater
- Researcher as Artist
- Resonance
- Storytelling
- Theatre of the Oppressed
- Transformational Methods
- Vignettes
- Visual Ethnography
- Visual Narrative Inquiry
- Visual Research
- Associations, Centers, and Institutes
- Association for Qualit ative Research (AQR)
- Center for Interpretive and Qualitative Research
- International Association of Qualitative Inquiry
- International Institute for Qualitative Methodology
- ResearchTalk, Inc.
- Computer-Assisted Data Analysis
- ATLAS.ti (Software)
- Computer-Assisted Data Analysis
- Diction (Software)
- Ethnograph (Software)
- Framework (Software)
- HyperRESEARCH (Software)
- MAXqda (Software)
- NVivo (Software)
- Qualrus (Software)
- SuperHyperQual (Software)
- TextQuest (Software)
- Transana (Software)
- Data Analysis
- Abduction
- Analytic Induction
- Artifact Analysis
- ATLAS.ti (Software)
- Audience Analysis
- Auditing
- Axial Coding
- Bricolage and Bricoleur
- Categories
- Categorization
- Co-Constructed Narrative
- Codes and Coding
- Coding Frame
- Collage
- Comparative Analysis
- Computer-Assisted Data Analysis
- Concept Mapping
- Conceptual Ordering
- Constant Comparison
- Content Analysis
- Context and Contextuality
- Context-Centered Knowledge
- Conversation Analysis
- Core Category
- Counternarrative
- Creative Writing
- Critical Discourse Analysis
- Cultural Context
- Data
- Data Analysis
- Data Management
- Data Saturation
- Deduction
- Descriptive Statistics
- Diction (Software)
- Discourse
- Discourse Analysis
- Discursive Practice
- Discovery
- Diversity Issues
- Document Analysis
- Embodied Knowledge
- Emergent Themes
- Emic/Etic Distinction
- Emotions in Qualitative Research
- Essence
- Ethnograph (Software)
- Ethnographic Content Analysis
- Ethnostatistics
- Evaluation Criteria
- Everyday Life
- Experiential Knowledge
- Explanation
- Exploratory Data Analysis
- Findings
- Foucauldian Discourse Analysis
- Framework (Software)
- Gender Issues
- Grounded Theory
- Heteroglossia
- Historical Context
- Historical Discourse Analysis
- Horizonalization
- HyperRESEARCH (Software)
- Imagination in Qualitative Research
- Indexicality
- Induction
- Interpretation
- Intertextuality
- In Vivo Coding
- Knowledge
- Liminal Perspective
- Literature Review
- Lived Experience
- Marginalization
- MAXqda (Software)
- Meaning
- Membership Categorization Device Analysis (MCDA)
- Memos and Memoing
- Meta-Analysis
- Meta-Narrative
- Metaphor
- Meta-Synthesis
- Narrative Analysis
- Narrative Genre Analysis
- Negative Case Analysis
- Nonverbal Communication
- NVivo (Software)
- Open Coding
- Otherness
- Peer Review
- Perception
- Photonovella and Photovoice
- Power
- Psychological Generalization
- Qualrus (Software)
- Rapid Assessment Process
- Reconstructive Analysis
- Recursivity
- Reflexivity
- Research Diaries and Journals
- Researcher as Artist
- Researcher as Instrument
- Researcher Sensitivity
- Research Literature
- Response Groups
- Rhythmanalysis
- Rigor in Qualitative Research
- Secondary Analysis
- Selective Coding
- Situatedness
- Social Context
- Social Network Analysis
- SuperHyperQual (Software)
- Systematic Sociological Introspection
- Tacit Knowledge
- TextQuest (Software)
- Textual Analysis
- Thematic Coding and Analysis
- Themes
- Theoretical Memoing
- Theoretical Saturation
- Thick Description
- Transana (Software)
- Transcript
- Transcription
- Truth
- Typological Analysis
- Understanding
- Video Intervention/Prevention Assessment
- Vignettes
- Visual Data
- Visual Data Displays
- Writing Process
- Data Collection
- Access
- Active Listening
- Artifacts
- Audiorecording
- Captive Population
- Checklists
- Closed Question
- Cognitive Interview
- Collage
- Convenience Sample
- Convergent Interviewing
- Conversational Interviewing
- Covert Observation
- Creative Writing
- Critical Incident Technique
- Data
- Data Archive
- Data Collection
- Data Generation
- Data Management
- Data Security
- Data Storage
- Debriefing
- Deception
- Dialogue
- Diaries and Journals
- Documents
- Dramaturgy
- Email Interview
- Emotions in Qualitative Research
- Empathy
- Ethnopoetics
- Fictional Writing
- Field Data
- Fieldnotes
- Fieldwork
- Film and Video in Qualitative Research
- Focus Groups
- Free Association Narrative Interview
- Funding
- Hypothesis
- In-Depth Interview
- In-Person Interview
- Interactive Focus Groups
- Interactive Interview
- Internet in Qualitative Research
- Interview Guide
- Interviewing
- Leaving the Field
- Life Stories
- Literature in Qualitative Research
- Literature Review
- Lived Experience
- Memoirs
- Memos and Memoing
- Multimedia in Qualitative Research
- Narrative Interview
- Narrative Texts
- Naturalistic Data
- Naturalistic Observation
- Natural Setting
- Negotiating Exit
- Neutrality in Qualitative Research
- Neutral Question
- Nonparticipant Observation
- Nonprobability Sampling
- Nonverbal Communication
- Observation Schedule
- Open-Ended Question
- Participant Observation
- Peer Debriefing
- Perception
- Photographs in Qualitative Research
- Pilot Study
- Poetry in Qualitative Research
- Population
- Probes and Probing
- Projective Techniques
- Prolonged Engagement
- Psychoanalytically Informed Observation
- Purposive Sampling
- Quota Sampling
- Random Sampling
- Rapport
- Raw Data
- Recruiting Participants
- Research Diaries and Journals
- Researcher as Instrument
- Researcher Roles
- Researcher Safety
- Researcher Sensitivity
- Research Literature
- Research Problem
- Research Question
- Research Setting
- Research Team
- Rich Data
- Rigor in Qualitative Research
- Risk
- Sample
- Sample Size
- Sampling
- Sampling Frame
- Secondary Data
- Semi-Structured Interview
- Sensitizing Concepts
- Serendipity
- Snowball Sampling
- Stratified Sampling
- Structured Interview
- Structured Observation
- Subjectivity Statement
- Telephone Interview
- Text
- Theoretical Sampling
- Triangulation
- Unstructured Interview
- Unstructured Observation
- Videorecording
- Vignettes
- Virtual Interview
- Dissemination and Writing
- Advances in Qualitative Methods Conference
- Creative Writing
- Ethnographic and Qualitative Research Conference
- Ethnography (Journal)
- Fictional Writing
- Field Methods (Journal)
- Film and Video in Qualitative Research
- Findings
- First-Person Voice
- Forum: Qualitative Social Research (Journal)
- Interdisciplinary Qualitative Studies Conference
- International Congress of Qualitative Inquiry
- International Human Science Research Conference
- International Journal of Qualitative Methods
- Internet in Qualitative Research
- Journal of Contemporary Ethnography
- Journal of Mixed Methods Research
- Literature in Qualitative Research
- Literature Review
- Memoirs
- Multimedia in Qualitative Research
- Narrative Inquiry (Journal)
- Oral History Review (Journal)
- Peer Review
- Poetry in Qualitative Research
- Portraiture
- Publishing and Publication
- Qualitative Health Research (Journal)
- Qualitative Health Research Conference
- Qualitative Inquiry (Journal)
- Qualitative Report, The (Journal)
- Qualitative Research (Journal)
- QualPage
- Representational Forms of Dissemination
- Research Literature
- Research Proposal
- Rhetoric
- Storytelling
- Subjectivity Statement
- Vignettes
- Voice
- Writing Process
- History of Qualitative Research
- Education, Qualitative Research in
- Evolution of Qualitative Research
- Health Sciences, Qualitative Research in
- Humanities, Qualitative Research in
- Politics of Qualitative Research
- Qualitative Research, History of
- Social Sciences, Qualitative Research in
- Participants
- Access
- Agency
- Audience
- Captive Population
- Confidentiality
- Conflict of Interest
- Debriefing
- Deception
- Disengagement
- Disinterestedness
- Diversity Issues
- Emotions in Qualitative Research
- Empathy
- Empowerment
- Ethics
- First-Person Voice
- Harm
- Identity
- Informant
- Informed Consent
- Insider/Outsider Status
- Intersubjectivity
- Key Informant
- Leaving the Field
- Lived Experience
- Marginalization
- Marginalized Populations
- Member Check
- Negotiating Exit
- Otherness
- Over-Rapport
- Participant
- Participant Observation
- Participants as Co-Researchers
- Participatory Action Research
- Population
- Privacy
- Pseudonym
- Rapport
- Reciprocity
- Researcher–Participant Relationships
- Respondent
- Secondary Participants
- Trust
- Virtual Community
- Voice
- Vulnerability
- Quantitative Research, Ties to
- Closed Question
- Deduction
- Descriptive Statistics
- Generalizability
- Hypothesis
- Objectivity
- Observation Schedule
- Population
- Probability Sampling
- Quantitative Research
- Quota Sampling
- Random Sampling
- Reductionism
- Reliability
- Replication
- Sample
- Statistics
- Survey Research
- Validity
- Research Design and Planning
- Access
- Data Analysis
- Data Archive
- Data Collection
- Data Generation
- Data Management
- Data Security
- Data Storage
- Ethics Review Process
- Funding
- Literature Review
- Methodology
- Methods
- Mixed Methods Research
- Participants as Co-Researchers
- Pilot Study
- Politics of Qualitative Research
- Project Management
- Publishing and Publication
- Qualitative Research Summer Intensive
- Quantitative Research
- Recruiting Participants
- Research Design
- Researcher as Artist
- Researcher as Instrument
- Researcher–Participant Relationships
- Researcher Roles
- Researcher Safety
- Researcher Sensitivity
- Research Justification
- Research Literature
- Research Problem
- Research Proposal
- Research Question
- Research Setting
- Research Team
- Rigor in Qualitative Research
- Sampling
- Secondary Analysis
- Secondary Data
- Theoretical Frameworks
- Theory
- Thinking Qualitatively Workshop Conference
- Triangulation
- Writing Process
- Research Ethics
- Access
- Accountability
- Anonymity
- Auditing
- Authenticity
- Benefit
- Bias
- Captive Population
- Confidentiality
- Conflict of Interest
- Data Security
- Debriefing
- Deception
- Ethics
- Ethics and New Media
- Ethics Codes
- Ethics Review Process
- Harm
- Informant
- Informed Consent
- Institutional Review Boards
- Integrity in Qualitative Research
- Key Informant
- Leaving the Field
- Negotiating Exit
- Over-Rapport
- Participant
- Participants as Co-Researchers
- Peer Debriefing
- Power
- Privacy
- Pseudonym
- Reciprocity
- Recruiting Participants
- Relational Ethics
- Researcher–Participant Relationships
- Respondent
- Risk
- Secondary Participants
- Sensitive Topics
- Trust
- Unobtrusive Research
- Vulnerability
- Rigor
- Audit Trail
- Authority
- Bias
- Bracketing
- Confirmability
- Constant Comparison
- Credibility
- Dependability
- Disengagement
- Disinterestedness
- Evidence
- Generalizability
- Inter- and Intracoder Reliability
- Member Check
- Negative Case Analysis
- Neutrality in Qualitative Research
- Objectivity
- Observer Bias
- Over-Rapport
- Peer Review
- Reactivity
- Reliability
- Replication
- Resonance
- Rigor in Qualitative Research
- Subjectivity
- Transferability
- Translatability
- Transparency
- Triangulation
- Trustworthiness
- Validity
- Value-Free Inquiry
- Verification
- Textual Analysis, Ties to
- Artifact Analysis
- Artifacts
- Autobiography
- Biography
- Content Analysis
- Conversation Analysis
- Creative Writing
- Critical Discourse Analysis
- Diaries and Journals
- Discourse
- Discourse Analysis
- Discursive Practice
- Discursive Psychology
- Document Analysis
- Documents
- Film and Video in Qualitative Research
- Historical Discourse Analysis
- Historical Research
- Historiography
- Internet in Qualitative Research
- Intertextuality
- Literature in Qualitative Research
- Multimedia in Qualitative Research
- Narrative Analysis
- Narrative Inquiry
- Narrative Interview
- Narrative Texts
- Poetry in Qualitative Research
- Rhetoric
- Text
- Textual Analysis
- Theoretical and Philosophical Frameworks
- Axiology
- Chaos and Complexity Theories
- Constructivism
- Critical Humanism
- Critical Pragmatism
- Critical Race Theory
- Critical Realism
- Critical Theory
- Deconstruction
- Discursive Psychology
- Empiricism
- Epistemology
- Essentialism
- Existentialism
- Feminist Epistemology
- Grand Narrative
- Grand Theory
- Hegemony
- Idealism
- Ideology
- Knowledge
- Nonessentialism
- Objectivism
- Ontology
- Paradigm
- Pluralism
- Positivism
- Postcolonialism
- Postmodernism
- Postpositivism
- Postrepresentation
- Poststructuralism
- Pragmatism
- Praxis
- Queer Theory
- Realism
- Reality and Multiple Realities
- Relativism
- Representation
- Semiotics
- Social Constructionism
- Structuralism
- Subjectivism
- Symbolic Interactionism
- Theoretical Frameworks
- Theory
- Truth
About the Editor
Lisa M. Given, PhD, is the Director of the International Institute for Qualitative Methodology (Faculty of Nursing), an Associate Professor in the School of Library and Information Studies (Faculty of Education), and an Adjunct Associate Professor in Humanities Computing (Faculty of Arts) at the University of Alberta. She received her PhD from the University of Western Ontario (London, Canada) in 2001.
Dr. Given's research interests include individuals' information behaviors, web usability, the design of library and campuse spaces, and information use in the context of higher education. She holds a number of grants and awards in support of her qualitative research projects, including the Association for Library and Information Science's 2002 Best Methodology Paper award for an innovative approach to data analysis. Her current Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (Canada) grant is titled “Participatory Design for a Visually-Based Drug Information Interface: Web Usability in the Context of Consumers' Health Information Behaviors.” She teaches graduate-level courses in research methods and supervises a number of student projects using qualitative methods. She has given guest lecturers and served on thesis and dissertation committees in several faculties and departments, such as education, engineering, human ecology, computing science, and nursing. She also regularly conducts workshops on research methods for professional and government organizations.
Dr. Given publishes regularly in the area of qualitative research methods and is the associate editor of the International Journal of Qualitative Methods. She is a past president of the Canadian Association for Information Science and currently serves on a number of editorial boards and committees. She is a member of Canada's Interagency Advisory Panel on Research Ethics, Social Sciences & Humanities Research Ethics Special Working Committee, where she is a lead author on a discussion paper titled “Qualitative Research in the Context of the Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans.”
Contributors
Catherine Adams, University of Alberta
Ricky Lee Allen, University of New Mexico
David L. Altheide, Arizona State University
Norman E. Amundson, University of British Columbia
Kate T. Anderson, Indiana University
Gavin J. Andrews, McMaster University
Vincent A. Anfara, Jr., University of Tennessee
Paul A. Atkinson, Cardiff University
Wendy J. Austin, University of Alberta
Lioness Ayres, University of Iowa
Hedy Bach, University of Alberta
Lynda M. Baker, Wayne State University
Claire Ballinger, London South Bank University
Tom Barone, Arizona State University
James Beebe, Gonzaga University
Lucia Benaquisto, McGill University
Patricia Benner, University of California, San Francisco
Bruce L. Berg, California State University, Long Beach
Marlene J. Berg, Institute for Community Research
J. Maria Bermudez, University of Georgia
Himika Bhattacharya, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Joachim K. Blatter, Erasmus University of Rotterdam
William A. Borgen, University of British Columbia
Robin M. Boylorn, University of South Florida
Ivan A. Brady, State University of New York, Oswego
Liora Bresler, University of Illinois
Svend Brinkmann, University of Aarhus
Anne E. Brodsky, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Steven R. Brown, Kent State University
Antony Bryant, Leeds Metropolitan University
John M. Budd, University of Missouri
Lynn Butler-Kisber, McGill University
Lee D. Butterfield, University of British Columbia
Melisa Cahnmann-Taylor, University of Georgia
Vera Caine, University of Alberta
Craig E. Carroll, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Phil Francis Carspecken, Indiana University
Marlene Brant Castellano, Trent University
Julia Chaitin, Sapir Academic College
Kathy Charmaz, Sonoma State University
Julianne Cheek, University of South Australia
Ron Chenail, Nova Southeastern University
D. Jean Clandinin, University of Alberta
Alexander M. Clark, University of Alberta
Lynn Schofield Clark, University of Colorado
Vicki L. Plano Clark, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Ardra L. Cole, University of Toronto
Diane H. Conrad, University of Alberta
Kay E. Cook, Deakin University
Martha A. Copp, East Tennessee State University
Louise Corti, University of Essex
Tracie E. Costantino, University of Georgia
John W. Creswell, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Graham Crow, University of Southampton
Christine S. Davis, University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Sara Delamont, Cardiff University
Norman K. Denzin, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Alice E. Diebel, Antioch University McGregor
Ann Dils, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Adrienne Dixson, Ohio State University
Wm. E. Doll, Jr., Louisiana State University
Robert Donmoyer, University of San Diego
Maura Dowling, Arus Moyola National University of Ireland, Galway
S. Michelle Driedger, University of Manitoba
Maureen Duffy, Barry University
Ricardo B. Duque, Tulane University
Jennifer Egan, University of Queensland
Phyllis J. Eide, Washington State University
Laura L. Ellingson, Santa Clara University
Carolyn S. Ellis, University of South Florida
Michael J. Emme, University of Victoria
Gisela Ernst-Slavit, Washington State University
Fred Evans, Duquesne University
Sheryl C. Fabian, Simon Fraser University
Barbara Fawcett, University of Sydney
David M. Fetterman, Stanford University
Mark Fettes, Simon Fraser University
Susan Finley, Washington State University
Michael W. Firmin, Cedarville University
Nick J. Fox, University of Sheffield
Mark P. Freeman, College of the Holy Cross
Melissa Freeman, University of Georgia
Jerry Gale, University of Georgia
Deborah J. Gallagher, University of Northern Iowa
Bridget Garnham, University of South Australia
Robin Edward Gearing, Columbia University
Alexandra Georgakopoulou, King's College London
Kenneth J. Gergen, Swarthmore College
Mary M. Gergen, Pennsylvania State University, Brandywine
Barbara E. Gibson, University of Toronto
Lisa M. Given, University of Alberta
Noel Gough, La Trobe University
Andre P. Grace, University of Alberta
Linda Grant, University of Georgia
Denise O'Neil Green, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Thomas Groenewald, University of South Africa
Heather Guevara, Portland State University
Kevin D. Haggerty, University of Alberta
Steen Halling, Seattle University
Martyn Hammersley, Open University
Roderick P. Hart, University of Texas at Austin
Iain Hay, Flinders University
Edward J. Hedican, University of Guelph
Susan C. Herring, Indiana University
Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber, Boston College
David R. Hiles, De Montfort University
Djanna Hill-Brisbane, William Paterson University
Christine M. Hine, University of Surrey
Wendy Hollway, Open University
Douglas R. Holmes, State University of New York, Binghamton
Rhidian Hughes, King's College London
Rita Louise Irwin, University of British Columbia
Mark Israel, Flinders University
Fiona Jack, Green Light International
Nalita James, University of Leicester
Tony Jefferson, Keele University
Devon Jensen, University of Calgary
John M. Johnson, Arizona State University
R. Burke Johnson, University of South Alabama
Juanita Johnson-Bailey, University of Georgia
Steve Jordan, McGill University
Reva Joshee, University of Toronto
Heidi Julien, University of Alberta
Sheila Keegan, Campbell Keegan Limited
Moira J. Kelly, Queen Mary, University of London
Andrew King, University of Surrey
Harald Klein, University of Osnabrück
Kathleen Knafl, Oregon Health & Science University
J. Gary Knowles, University of Toronto
Hans-Herbert Kögler, University of North Florida
Margaret Macintyre Latta, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Gloria Leckie, University of Western Ontario
Margaret D. LeCompte, University of Colorado
Nancy L. Leech, University of Colorado at Denver
Zeus Leonardo, University of California, Berkeley
Louise B. Limberg, University College of Borås
J. P. Linstroth, Nova Southeastern University
Sharon Lockyer, Brunel University
Jacqueline Low, University of New Brunswick
Rebecca Luce-Kapler, Queen's University
Peter Lugosi, Bournemouth University
Karen Saucier Lundy, University of Southern Mississippi
Anna Madill, University of Leeds
Raymond C. Maietta, ResearchTalk, Inc.
George E. Marcus, University of California, Irvine
Annette N. Markham, University of the Virgin Islands
Sherry Marx, Utah State University
Joseph A. Maxwell, George Mason University
Allyssa McCabe, University of Massachusetts Lowell
Mark McCaslin, Institute of Transpersonal Psychology
Timothy McGettigan, Colorado State University–Pueblo
Michelle K. McGinn, Brock University
Lynne E. F. McKechnie, University of Western Ontario
Janet L. Miller, Columbia University
J. Mitchell Miller, University of Texas at San Antonio
Peter Miller, Duquesne University
Melinda C. Mills, University of Groningen
Kavita Mittapalli, George Mason University
David L. Morgan, Portland State University
Janice M. Morse, University of Utah
Patricia L. Munhall, International Institute for Human Understanding
Kagendo Mutua, University of Alabama
Thu Su'o'ng ThễNguyịn, University of Missouri–Columbia
George W. Noblit, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Jeff Noonan, University of Windsor
Joe Norris, St. Francis Xavier University
Karen E. Norum, Gonzaga University
William O'Connor, National Centre for Social Research
Patrick O'Neill, Acadia University
Russel Ogden, Kwantlen University College
Michael Russell Olsson, University of Technology, Sydney
Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, University of South Florida
Jillian A. Tullis Owen, University of South Florida
Nicholas J. Pace, University of Northern Iowa
Deborah K. Padgett, New York University
Raymond V. Padilla, University of Texas at San Antonio
John Paley, University of Stirling
Ted Palys, Simon Fraser University
Yoosun Park, Smith College
Barbara L. Paterson, University of New Brunswick
Michael Quinn Patton, Utilization-Focused Evaluation
Linda Peterat, University of British Columbia
Maria Piantanida, Carlow University
Derek Pigrum, Vienna International School
Jane M. Piirto, Ashland University
Blake D. Poland, University of Toronto
Kimberly K. Porter, University of North Dakota
Jonathan Potter, Loughborough University
Judith Preissle, University of Georgia
Lindsay F. Prior, Queen's University, Belfast
Debbie Pushor, University of Saskatchewan
Richard Race, Roehampton University
Carl Ratner, Institute for Cultural Research & Education
Nichole M. Ray, University of Georgia
Ruth Rettie, Kingston University
Michael Rich, Harvard Medical School
Catherine Kohler Riessman, Boston College
Beth L. Rodgers, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
Gary Rolfe, Swansea University
Paulette M. Rothbauer, University of Western Ontario
Kathryn J. Roulston, University of Georgia
Steven Rytina, McGill University
Johnny Saldaña, Arizona State University
Margaret W. Sallee, University of Southern California
James Salvo, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Margarete Sandelowski, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Kathy Sanford, University of Victoria
Joseph C. Santora, Thomas Edison State College
Kristie Saumure, University of Alberta
Jean J. Schensul, Institute for Community Research
James B. Schreiber, Duquesne University
Gary Shank, Duquesne University
Mark D. Sherry, University of Toledo
Wesley Shrum, Louisiana State University
Richard Siegesmund, University of Georgia
Debra Skinner, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Dorothy E. Smith, University of Victoria
John K. Smith, University of Northern Iowa
Kendall Smith-Sullivan, University of South Florida
Robyn Smyth, University of New England
Bridget Somekh, Manchester Metropolitan University
Sally St. George, University of Calgary
Robert Alan Stebbins, University of Calgary
Phyllis Noerager Stern, Indiana University
Susan W. Stinson, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Lynda Stone, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Bogusia Temple, University of Central Lancashire
Paul ten Have, University of Amsterdam
Sally E. Thorne, University of British Columbia
William G. Tierney, University of Southern California
Elizabeth J. Tisdell, Penn State University, Harrisburg
Lyn Turney, Swinburne University of Technology
Deborah K. van den Hoonaard, St. Thomas University
Will C. van den Hoonaard, University of New Brunswick
Max van Manen, University of Alberta
Heidi Vandebosch, University of Antwerp
Phillip Vannini, Royal Roads University
Deborah McCarthy Van Oosten, University of Ontario Institute of Technology
Jacqueline Halina Watts, Open University
Elena Welsh, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Csilla Weninger, University of Georgia
Bob Williams
J. Patrick Williams, Arkansas State University
Kandy Woodfield, National Centre for Social Research
Dan Wulff, University of Calgary
Introduction
The FieldQualitative research is designed to explore the human elements of a given topic, where specific methods are used to examine how individuals see and experience the world. Although qualitative research is often described in opposition to quantitative research, many scholars and practitioners are now using mixed methods and interdisciplinary approaches in their projects. Understanding the goals, intentions, and implications of these different research paradigms is vital to developing and assessing appropriate research designs. Qualitative methods are best for addressing many of the why questions that researchers have in mind when they develop their projects. Where quantitative approaches are appropriate for examining who has engaged in a behavior or what has happened and while experiments can test particular interventions, these techniques are not designed to explain why certain behaviors occur. Qualitative approaches are typically used to explore new phenomena and to capture individuals' thoughts, feelings, or interpretations of meaning and process.
Qualitative methods are central to research conducted in education, nursing, sociology, anthropology, information studies, and other disciplines in the humanities, social sciences, and health sciences. The range of methods available is very broad (e.g., in-person interviews, observation, diaries and journals) and projects are informed by various methodologies (e.g., phenomenology, discourse analysis) and theoretical frameworks (e.g., feminist epistemology). However, students, scholars, and professionals who are new to qualitative research typically need guidance in defining the boundaries of this type of work, including guidance in selecting specific methods, knowing what types of data are appropriate for qualitative studies, identifying theoretical frameworks for particular projects, and so on. It is important that both novice and established scholars understand the language, culture, and paradigmatic approaches used in qualitative research, especially as interdisciplinary projects increasingly link researchers across varied fields of study. Researchers and practitioners at all levels, and across disciplines, will benefit from this encyclopedia, as it defines and explains core concepts, describes the techniques involved in the implementation of qualitative methods, and presents an overview of qualitative approaches to research.
Rationale for this EncyclopediaThe SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods presents current and complete information, as well as ready-to-use techniques, facts, and examples from the field of qualitative research in a very accessible style. The volume is designed to appeal to undergraduate and graduate students, practitioners, researchers, consultants, and consumers of information across the social sciences, humanities, and health sciences. The encyclopedia provides a much more comprehensive examination of qualitative methods than is found in other published texts, as it is designed to appeal to readers across disciplines. In taking an interdisciplinary approach, this encyclopedia targets a much broader audience than other texts; it fills a gap in the existing reference literature for a general, interdisciplinary guide to the core concepts that inform qualitative research practices.
The entries cover every major facet of qualitative methods, including gaining access to research participants, data coding, research ethics, the role of theory in qualitative research, and much more—all without overwhelming the informed reader. Although the range of topics is intended to be comprehensive, each individual entry is designed to provide only an introduction to the topic at hand. Each entry is following by a list of key readings on the topic. In addition, entries may also contain the first and last names of scholars or mention key works that are not included in the Further Readings. These names and resources provide additional starting points for readers who want to identify additional sources on the material discussed in the entry by searching for these people and materials on the internet or in library collections.
To provide quick access to the diversity of topics in the encyclopedia, a “Reader's Guide” groups the entries into 16 subject categories: Approaches and Methodologies; Arts-Based Research, Ties to; Associations, Centers, and Institutes; Computer-Assisted Data Analysis; Data Analysis; Data Collection; Dissemination and Writing; History of Qualitative Research; Participants; Quantitative Research, Ties to; Research Design and Planning; Research Ethics; Rigor; Textual Analysis, Ties to; and Theoretical and Philosophical Frameworks.
Content and OrganizationThere was a concerted effort made in the design of the encyclopedia to cover every topic that informs qualitative research methods practice and development. This is easier said than done! Certainly, a volume like this will never be fully complete, as qualitative methods are in constant evolution—being recrafted and reshaped within and between disciplines. New methods and techniques, new journals, and new software packages are created every year. At the same time, existing approaches are often reframed, particularly as new theoretical frameworks inform thinking on qualitative methods design. The richness and vibrancy of the qualitative paradigm is exciting for researchers and often what draws us to this type of work; and yet, this makes the development of a comprehensive encyclopedia a challenging end goal indeed. We have tried our best to be comprehensive and complete while keeping redundancies to a minimum and while respecting disciplinary differences. Indeed, the political landscape surrounding the value of “scientific” research and the place of qualitative methods within that landscape is a recurring theme in many of the entries. Despite the ubiquitous nature of qualitative methods, for decades, across dozens of disciplines, qualitative methods remain a contested and controversial area of work for many scholars and practitioners. Their voices—and those for whom this area of work is well regarded—ring through this volume.
However, it is also important to note that the language of qualitative methods is difficult to formalize. Whether we refer to a study as using a “discourse analysis” approach, a “meta-analysis” approach, or whether we label it as “content analysis” may be a question of interpretation informed by one's own disciplinary background and training. Indeed, many of the entries point to substantive debates among qualitative researchers regarding how concepts are labeled and the implications for how qualitative research is valued.
In some cases (as with this discourse analysis example), we have included separate entries on related concepts where we felt that a single entry alone could not represent the nuances of these different, yet connected, terms. In other cases, we have included “see also” references to point readers to a single, preferred term to represent a concept. The authors of the entries have also identified see also terms to point readers to additional, related topics. All of these techniques are designed to guide readers through the complex landscape of the language of qualitative inquiry. However, there may well be a few terms where we have inadvertently omitted a linking term or where we have made a difficult decision in choosing one term over another. The “Reader's Guide” will therefore serve as an invaluable resource for individuals who need some guidance in locating specific topics.
How the Encyclopedia Was CreatedThe encyclopedia was developed in six steps:
Step 1: Qualitative methods experts from around the world and representing various disciplines were invited to serve on the editorial board. The board includes individuals who have published widely in the area of qualitative methods and who advise students, practitioners, and faculty members on the use and development of qualitative research approaches. Our Managing Editor, Kristie Saumure, was recruited at this stage to oversee the day-to-day progress of our work.
Step 2: We created a list of terms to be included in the volume, which involved two major phases of work. First, an initial list was crafted by the Editor and Managing Editor, based on a review of published qualitative methods texts, journals specializing in qualitative methods development, qualitative conference proceedings, and other relevant research literature. Then, this list was circulated to the editorial board for their feedback and suggestions. The board's review identified gaps in the list, as well as areas where the terminology should be updated, refined, or altered to reflect disciplinary differences and preferences. For example, although some qualitative researchers use terms for rigor that reflect a quantitative or experimental paradigm (e.g., validity and reliability), others prefer terminology that is specific to qualitative work (e.g., credibility and dependability). Overall, the design of the encyclopedia has taken the latter approach and reflects an inherently qualitative language. In some cases (as with rigor), entries are included that reflect both ends of this language spectrum; in other cases, readers will find appropriate see also references throughout the text to guide them through this complex landscape of terminology.
Step 3: At this stage, we identified and invited contributors to write entries for the nearly 500 terms that are included in this two-volume set. The editorial board was asked to nominate individuals to serve as authors, and we also searched the published literature, consulted with colleagues, and reviewed individuals' personal websites to identify potential contributors. Our goal was to reflect a range of disciplinary and global voices in these contributions. To that end, the authors hail from various countries and disciplines, and the entries reflect a diverse spectrum of research approaches (from more traditional, positivist approaches through postmodern, constructionist ones).
The contributors include junior scholars and senior experts, as well as individuals working outside of academe in qualitative methods training and consulting. Readers will, no doubt, recognize a number of key figures in this volume, who have shaped qualitative methods work for decades, as well as some upand-coming names in the field. This richness of perspectives may well introduce some areas of conflict and contradiction between the entries; however, such diversity—like qualitative research itself—is vital to energizing our work and moving methods development forward in the future. The contributors share a passion for qualitative research that is reflected in their writing and in their willingness to write for this encyclopedia. Although some individuals we approached could not participate (often due to illness or time commitments), those who did really took ownership of the text as a whole, in addition to their individual entries. Many of the contributors volunteered to write on more than one topic, suggested new terminology for certain concepts, or asked us to include additional entries, particularly where they were dabbling with new approaches and techniques. This depth of commitment on the part of our contributors has made the encyclopedia far richer and more comprehensive than it would have been without their caring and concern.
Step 4: Contributors were provided with instructions for the creation of their entries, as well as a few samples to guide their writing and research. In particular, we encouraged them to be as descriptive and comprehensive as possible while writing for the educated, yet unknowing reader. Although we have tried to maintain a degree of similarity in the look and feel of the entries, the authors were also encouraged to find their own voice in these texts and write in a way that suited the content of their contributions. For example, although the publisher's style guidelines encourage the use of the third-person voice for encyclopedia entries, the first-person voice is one that resonates strongly in qualitative research and writing. Readers will note that some authors have chosen to write in the first-person voice (including, most appropriately, the entry on the use of first-person voice), while others have chosen to write in the third-person. Such stylistic differences are purposeful in this volume, so should not be read as inconsistent, per se. Rather, these examples speak to the diversity of approaches that define qualitative work and serve as illustrative markers of the various ways that scholars and practitioners approach qualitative work.
Step 5: The Editor and Managing Editor reviewed all of the entries and asked the authors for revisions, as necessary. At times, we also relied on the expertise of members of the editorial board to ensure a high level of quality and comprehensiveness in the entries included.
Step 6: We finalized the entries, compiled the Reader's Guide, and compiled all supplementary materials (such as this introduction).
AcknowledgmentsThis encyclopedia would not have been possible without the guidance and support of a number of amazing people. First, I would like to thank our Managing Editor, Kristie Saumure, who enabled this project to unfold since its inception in 2006. I also wish to thank the editorial board for their advice in choosing which terms to include, and the authors, for writing such insightful and comprehensive entries. I would like to thank my colleagues at the School of Library and Information Studies and the International Institute for Qualitative Methodology (University of Alberta), the faculty of Information and Media Studies (University of Western Ontario), and those with whom I serve on Canada's Interagency Advisory Panel on Research Ethics, Social Sciences and Humanities Special Working Committee. I am also very grateful for the support and careful attention given to the project by Sage's publishing team. In particular, Diana Axelsen has been a wealth of knowledge and support; I've really enjoyed our “cyber-coffee chats” about the nature of qualitative research over the past 2 years. I would also like to thank Neil J. Salkind, my agent at Studio B, who has been a wonderful mentor to me in completing this project.
On a personal note, I would like to thank my husband, Dan Given, for his love, support, and unending ideas for making this project a success. I also wish to thank my parents, Jim and Jean MacArthur, as well as my siblings and friends, for their guidance and support throughout the completion of this project.