The SAGE Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation
Encyclopedias
Publication Year: 2018
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781506326139
Subject: Special & Inclusive Education (general), Emotional Intelligence
- Reader's Guide
- Entries A-Z
- Subject Index
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Copyright
Copyright © 2018 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Frey, Bruce B., editor.
Title: The Sage encyclopedia of educational research, measurement, and evaluation/editor, Bruce B. Frey, University of Kansas.
Description: Thousand Oaks, California : SAGE Publications, Inc., [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017042016 | ISBN 978-1-5063-2615-3 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Education—Research—Methodology.
Classification: LCC LB1028 .S139 2018 | DDC 370.72—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017042016
Printed in the United States of America.
Acquisitions Editor: Andrew Boney
Developmental Editor: Shirin Parsavand
Assistant Editor: Jordan Enobakhare
Reference Systems Manager: Leticia Gutierrez
Production Editor: David C. Felts
Copy Editor: Hurix Digital
Typesetter: Hurix Digital
Proofreaders: Lawrence W. Baker, Barbara Coster, Eleni Georgiou, Sally Jaskold
Indexer: Joan Shapiro
Cover Designer: Anupama Krishnan
Marketing Manager: Jennifer Bourque
Editorial Board
Editor
Bruce B. Frey University of Kansas
Editorial Board
Neal Kingston University of Kansas
Jill Hendrickson Lohmeier University of Massachusetts Lowell
William P. Skorupski University of Kansas
Jonathan Templin University of Kansas
Rebecca H. Woodland University of Massachusetts Amherst
List of Entries
Reader’s Guide
- Assessment
- Assessment Issues
- Accessibility of Assessment
- Accommodations
- African Americans and Testing
- Asian Americans and Testing
- Cheating
- Ethical Issues in Testing
- Gender and Testing
- High-Stakes Tests
- Latinos and Testing
- Minority Issues in Testing
- Second Language Learners, Assessment of
- Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
- Test Security
- Testwiseness
- Assessment Methods
- Ability Tests
- Achievement Tests
- Adaptive Behavior Assessments
- Admissions Tests
- Alternate Assessments
- Aptitude Tests
- Attenuation, Correction for
- Attitude Scaling
- Basal Level and Ceiling Level
- Benchmark
- Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook
- Classification
- Cognitive Diagnosis
- Computer-Based Testing
- Computerized Adaptive Testing
- Confidence Interval
- Curriculum-Based Assessment
- Diagnostic Tests
- Difficulty Index
- Discrimination Index
- English Language Proficiency Assessment
- Formative Assessment
- Intelligence Tests
- Interquartile Range
- Minimum Competency Testing
- Mood Board
- Personality Assessment
- Power Tests
- Progress Monitoring
- Projective Tests
- Psychometrics
- Reading Comprehension Assessments
- Screening Tests
- Self-Report Inventories
- Sociometric Assessment
- Speeded Tests
- Standards-Based Assessment
- Summative Assessment
- Technology-Enhanced Items
- Test Battery
- Testing, History of
- Tests
- Value-Added Models
- Written Language Assessment
- Classroom Assessment
- Authentic Assessment
- Backward Design
- Bloom’s Taxonomy
- Classroom Assessment
- Constructed-Response Items
- Curriculum-Based Measurement
- Essay Items
- Fill-in-the-Blank Items
- Formative Assessment
- Game-Based Assessment
- Grading
- Matching Items
- Multiple-Choice Items
- Paper-and-Pencil Assessment
- Performance-Based Assessment
- Portfolio Assessment
- Rubrics
- Second Language Learners, Assessment of
- Selection Items
- Student Self-Assessment
- Summative Assessment
- Supply Items
- Technology in Classroom Assessment
- True-False Items
- Universal Design of Assessment
- Item Response Theory
- a Parameter
- b Parameter
- c Parameter
- Conditional Standard Error of Measurement
- Differential Item Functioning
- Item Information Function
- Item Response Theory
- Multidimensional Item Response Theory
- Rasch Model
- Test Information Function
- Testlet Response Theory
- Reliability
- Coefficient Alpha
- Decision Consistency
- Internal Consistency
- Inter-Rater Reliability
- Kappa Coefficient of Agreement
- KR-20
- Omega
- Phi Coefficient (in Generalizability Theory)
- Reliability
- Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula
- Split-Half Reliability
- Test–Retest Reliability
- Scores and Scaling
- Age Equivalent Scores
- Analytic Scoring
- Automated Essay Evaluation
- Criterion-Referenced Interpretation
- Decile
- Grade-Equivalent Scores
- Guttman Scaling
- Holistic Scoring
- Intelligence Quotient
- Interval-Level Measurement
- Ipsative Scales
- Levels of Measurement
- Lexiles
- Likert Scaling
- Multidimensional Scaling
- Nominal-Level Measurement
- Normal Curve Equivalent Score
- Norm-Referenced Interpretation
- Ordinal-Level Measurement
- Percentile Rank
- Primary Trait Scoring
- Propensity Scores
- Quartile
- Rankings
- Rating Scales
- Reverse Scoring
- Scales
- Score Reporting
- Semantic Differential Scaling
- Standardized Scores
- Stanines
- T Scores
- Thurstone Scaling
- Visual Analog Scales
- W Difference Scores
- Z Scores
- Standardized Tests
- Achievement Tests
- ACT
- Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development
- Beck Depression Inventory
- Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
- Educational Testing Service
- Iowa Test of Basic Skills
- Kaufman-ABC Intelligence Test
- Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
- National Assessment of Educational Progress
- Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers
- Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
- Programme for International Student Assessment
- Progress in International Reading Literacy Study
- Raven’s Progressive Matrices
- SAT
- Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium
- Standardized Tests
- Standards-Based Assessment
- Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
- Summative Assessment
- Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking
- Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
- Wechsler Intelligence Scales
- Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement
- Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Ability
- Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Oral Language
- Validity
- Concurrent Validity
- Consequential Validity Evidence
- Construct Irrelevance
- Construct Underrepresentation
- Content-Related Validity Evidence
- Criterion-Based Validity Evidence
- Measurement Invariance
- Multicultural Validity
- Multitrait–Multimethod Matrix
- Predictive Validity
- Sensitivity
- Social Desirability
- Specificity
- Test Bias
- Unitary View of Validity
- Validity
- Validity, History of
- Validity Coefficients
- Validity Generalization
- Cognitive and Affective Variables
- Attention
- Creativity
- Critical Thinking
- Giftedness
- Learned Helplessness
- Locus of Control
- Long-Term Memory
- Metacognition
- Motivation
- Problem Solving
- Resilience
- Self-Efficacy
- Self-Regulation
- Short-Term Memory
- Transfer
- Working Memory
- Data Visualization Methods
- Bar Graphs
- Box Plot
- Data Visualization Methods
- Delta Plot
- Graphical Modeling
- Histograms
- Scatterplots
- Scree Plot
- Disabilities and Disorders
- Anxiety
- Asperger’s Syndrome
- Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
- Autism Spectrum Disorder
- Bipolar Disorder
- Developmental Disabilities
- Dysgraphia
- Dyslexia
- Intellectual Disability and Postsecondary Education
- Learning Disabilities
- Distributions
- Areas Under the Normal Curve
- Bernoulli Distribution
- Distributions
- F Distribution
- Moments of a Distribution
- Normal Distribution
- Poisson Distribution
- Posterior Distribution
- Prior Distribution
- Educational Policies
- Adequate Yearly Progress
- Americans with Disabilities Act
- Brown v. Board of Education
- Coleman Report
- Common Core State Standards
- Corporal Punishment
- Every Student Succeeds Act
- Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act
- Great Society Programs
- Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
- Inclusion
- Individualized Education Program
- Individuals With Disabilities Education Act
- Least Restrictive Environment
- No Child Left Behind Act
- Policy Research
- Race to the Top
- School Vouchers
- Special Education Identification
- Special Education Law
- State Standards
- Evaluation Concepts
- Advocacy in Evaluation
- Collaboration, Evaluation of
- Conceptual Framework
- Evaluation
- Evaluation, History of
- Evaluation Versus Research
- Feasibility
- Goals and Objectives
- Inputs
- Logic Models
- Merit
- Outcomes
- Program Theory of Change
- Stakeholders
- Triangulation
- Values
- Evaluation Designs
- Appreciative Inquiry
- CIPP Evaluation Model
- Collaborative Evaluation
- Consumer-Oriented Evaluation Approach
- Cost–Benefit Analysis
- Culturally Responsive Evaluation
- Democratic Evaluation
- Developmental Evaluation
- Empowerment Evaluation
- Evaluation Capacity Building
- Evidence-Centered Design
- External Evaluation
- Feminist Evaluation
- Formative Evaluation
- Four-Level Evaluation Model
- Goal-Free Evaluation
- Internal Evaluation
- Needs Assessment
- Participatory Evaluation
- Personnel Evaluation
- Policy Evaluation
- Process Evaluation
- Program Evaluation
- Responsive Evaluation
- Success Case Method
- Summative Evaluation
- Utilization-Focused Evaluation
- Human Development
- Adolescence
- Adultism
- Childhood
- Cognitive Development, Theory of
- Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
- Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
- Parenting Styles
- Puberty
- Resilience
- Instrument Development
- Accreditation
- Alignment
- Angoff Method
- Body of Work Method
- Bookmark Method
- Construct-Related Validity Evidence
- Content Analysis
- Content Standard
- Content Validity Ratio
- Curriculum Mapping
- Cut Scores
- Ebel Method
- Equating
- Instructional Sensitivity
- Item Analysis
- Item Banking
- Item Development
- Learning Maps
- Modified Angoff Method
- Norming
- Proficiency Levels in Language
- Readability
- Score Linking
- Standard Setting
- Table of Specifications
- Vertical Scaling
- Organizations and Government Agencies
- American Educational Research Association
- American Evaluation Association
- American Psychological Association
- Educational Testing Service
- Institute of Education Sciences
- Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium Standards
- Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation
- National Council on Measurement in Education
- National Science Foundation
- Office of Elementary and Secondary Education
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
- Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers
- Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium
- Teachers’ Associations
- U.S. Department of Education
- World Education Research Association
- Professional Issues
- Accountability
- Certification
- Classroom Observations
- Compliance
- Confidentiality
- Conflict of Interest
- Data-Driven Decision Making
- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
- Educational Researchers, Training of
- Ethical Issues in Educational Research
- Ethical Issues in Evaluation
- Ethical Issues in Testing
- Evaluation Consultants
- Federally Sponsored Research and Programs
- Framework for Teaching
- Guiding Principles for Evaluators
- Licensure
- Professional Development of Teachers
- Professional Learning Communities
- School Psychology
- Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
- Teacher Evaluation
- Teachers’ Associations
- Publishing
- Abstracts
- APA Format
- Authorship
- Demographics
- Dissertations
- Journal Articles
- Literature Review
- Methods Section
- Research Proposals
- Results Section
- Qualitative Research
- Auditing
- Delphi Technique
- Discourse Analysis
- Document Analysis
- Ethnography
- Field Notes
- Focus Groups
- Grounded Theory
- Historical Research
- Interviewer Bias
- Interviews
- Market Research
- Member Check
- Narrative Research
- Naturalistic Inquiry
- Participant Observation
- Qualitative Data Analysis
- Qualitative Research Methods
- Transcription
- Trustworthiness
- Research Concepts
- Applied Research
- Aptitude-Treatment Interaction
- Causal Inference
- Data
- Ecological Validity
- External Validity
- File Drawer Problem
- Fraudulent and Misleading Data
- Generalizability
- Hypothesis Testing
- Impartiality
- Interaction
- Internal Validity
- Objectivity
- Order Effects
- Representativeness
- Response Rate
- Scientific Method
- Type III Error
- Research Designs
- ABA Designs
- Action Research
- Case Study Method
- Causal-Comparative Research
- Cross-Cultural Research
- Crossover Design
- Design-Based Research
- Double-Blind Design
- Experimental Designs
- Gain Scores, Analysis of
- Latin Square Design
- Meta-Analysis
- Mixed Methods Research
- Monte Carlo Simulation Studies
- Nonexperimental Designs
- Pilot Studies
- Posttest-Only Control Group Design
- Pre-experimental Designs
- Pretest–Posttest Designs
- Quasi-Experimental Designs
- Regression Discontinuity Analysis
- Repeated Measures Designs
- Single-Case Research
- Solomon Four-Group Design
- Split-Plot Design
- Static Group Design
- Time Series Analysis
- Triple-Blind Studies
- Twin Studies
- Zelen’s Randomized Consent Design
- Research Methods
- Classroom Observations
- Cluster Sampling
- Control Variables
- Convenience Sampling
- Debriefing
- Deception
- Expert Sampling
- Judgment Sampling
- Markov Chain Monte Carlo Methods
- Quantitative Research Methods
- Quota Sampling
- Random Assignment
- Random Selection
- Replication
- Simple Random Sampling
- Snowball Sampling
- Stratified Random Sampling
- Survey Methods
- Systematic Sampling
- Weighting
- Research Tools
- Amos
- ATLAS.ti
- BILOG-MG
- Bubble Drawing
- C Programming Languages
- Collage Technique
- Computer Programming in Quantitative Analysis
- Concept Mapping
- EQS
- Excel
- FlexMIRT
- HLM
- HyperResearch
- IRTPRO
- Johari Window
- Kelly Grid
- LISREL
- Mplus
- National Assessment of Educational Progress
- NVivo
- PARSCALE
- Programme for International Student Assessment
- Progress in International Reading Literacy Study
- R
- SAS
- SPSS
- Stata
- Surveys
- Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
- UCINET
- Social and Ethical Issues
- Accessibility of Assessment
- Accommodations
- Accreditation
- African Americans and Testing
- Alignment
- Asian Americans and Testing
- Assent
- Belmont Report
- Cheating
- Confidentiality
- Conflict of Interest
- Corporal Punishment
- Cultural Competence
- Deception in Human Subjects Research
- Declaration of Helsinki
- Dropouts
- Ethical Issues in Educational Research
- Ethical Issues in Evaluation
- Ethical Issues in Testing
- Falsified Data in Large-Scale Surveys
- Flynn Effect
- 45 CFR Part 46
- Fraudulent and Misleading Data
- Gender and Testing
- High-Stakes Tests
- Human Subjects Protections
- Human Subjects Research, Definition of
- Informed Consent
- Institutional Review Boards
- ISO 20252
- Latinos and Testing
- Minority Issues in Testing
- Nuremberg Code
- Second Language Learners, Assessment of
- Service-Learning
- Social Justice
- STEM Education
- Social Network Analysis
- Matrices (in Social Network Analysis)
- Network Centrality
- Network Cohesion
- Network Density
- Social Network Analysis
- Social Network Analysis Using R
- Statistics
- Bayesian Statistics
- Bayesian Statistics
- Bayes’s Theorem
- Marginal Maximum Likelihood Estimation
- Maximum Likelihood Estimation
- Posterior Distribution
- Prior Distribution
- Statistical Analyses
- Analysis of Covariance
- Analysis of Variance
- Binomial Test
- Canonical Correlation
- Chi-Square Test
- Cluster Analysis
- Cochran Q Test
- Confirmatory Factor Analysis
- Cramér’s V Coefficient
- Descriptive Statistics
- Discriminant Function Analysis
- Exploratory Factor Analysis
- Fisher Exact Test
- Friedman Test
- Goodness-of-Fit Tests
- Hierarchical Regression
- Inferential Statistics
- Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
- Kruskal-Wallis Test
- Levene’s Homogeneity of Variance Test
- Logistic Regression
- Mann-Whitney Test
- Mantel-Haenszel Test
- McNemar Change Test
- Measures of Central Tendency
- Measures of Variability
- Median Test
- Mixed Model Analysis of Variance
- Multiple Linear Regression
- Multivariate Analysis of Variance
- Part Correlations
- Partial Correlations
- Path Analysis
- Pearson Correlation Coefficient
- Phi Correlation Coefficient
- Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance
- Simple Linear Regression
- Spearman Correlation Coefficient
- Standard Error of Measurement
- Stepwise Regression
- Structural Equation Modeling
- Survival Analysis
- t Tests
- Two-Way Analysis of Variance
- Two-Way Chi-Square
- Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
- Statistical Concepts
- Alpha Level
- Autocorrelation
- Bonferroni Procedure
- Bootstrapping
- Categorical Data Analysis
- Central Limit Theorem
- Conditional Independence
- Convergence
- Correlation
- Data Mining
- Dummy Variables
- Effect Size
- Estimation Bias
- Eta Squared
- Gauss-Markov Theorem
- Holm’s Sequential Bonferroni Procedure
- Kurtosis
- Latent Class Analysis
- Local Independence
- Longitudinal Data Analysis
- Matrix Algebra
- Mediation Analysis
- Missing Data Analysis
- Multicollinearity
- Odds Ratio
- p Value
- Parameter Invariance
- Parameter Mean Squared Error
- Parameter Random Error
- Post Hoc Analysis
- Power
- Power Analysis
- Probit Transformation
- R2
- Residuals
- Robust Statistics
- Sample Size
- Significance
- Simpson’s Paradox
- Skewness
- Standard Deviation
- Type I Error
- Type II Error
- Type III Error
- Variance
- Winsorizing
- Statistical Models
- Cross-Classified Models
- Diagnostic Classification Models
- Dyadic Data Analysis
- Generalized Linear Mixed Models
- Growth Curve Modeling
- Hierarchical Linear Modeling
- Model–Data Fit
- Teaching and Learning
- Active Learning
- Andragogy
- Bilingual Education, Research on
- College Success
- Constructivist Approach
- Cooperative Learning
- Curriculum
- Distance Learning
- Dropouts
- Evidence-Based Interventions
- Framework for Teaching
- Head Start
- Homeschooling
- Instructional Objectives
- Instructional Rounds
- Kindergarten
- Kinesthetic Learning
- Laddering
- Learning Progressions
- Learning Styles
- Learning Theories
- Literacy
- Mastery Learning
- Montessori Schools
- Out-of-School Activities
- Pygmalion Effect
- Quantitative Literacy
- Reading Comprehension
- Scaffolding
- School Leadership
- Self-Directed Learning
- Service-Learning
- Social Learning
- Socio-Emotional Learning
- STEM Education
- Waldorf Schools
- Theories and Conceptual Frameworks
- Ability–Achievement Discrepancy
- Andragogy
- Applied Behavior Analysis
- Attribution Theory
- Behaviorism
- Cattell–Horn–Carroll Theory of Intelligence
- Classical Conditioning
- Classical Test Theory
- Cognitive Neuroscience
- Constructivist Approach
- Data-Driven Decision Making
- Debriefing
- Educational Psychology
- Educational Research, History of
- Emotional Intelligence
- Epistemologies, Teacher and Student
- Experimental Phonetics
- Feedback Intervention Theory
- Framework for Teaching
- g Theory of Intelligence
- Generalizability Theory
- Grounded Theory
- Improvement Science Research
- Information Processing Theory
- Instructional Theory
- Item Response Theory
- Learning Progressions
- Learning Styles
- Learning Theories
- Mastery Learning
- Multiple Intelligences, Theory of
- Naturalistic Inquiry
- Operant Conditioning
- Paradigm Shift
- Phenomenology
- Positivism
- Postpositivism
- Pragmatic Paradigm
- Premack Principle
- Punishment
- Reinforcement
- Response to Intervention
- School-Wide Positive Behavior Support
- Scientific Method
- Self-Directed Learning
- Social Cognitive Theory
- Social Learning
- Socio-Emotional Learning
- Speech-Language Pathology
- Terman Study of the Gifted
- Transformative Paradigm
- Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
- True Score
- Unitary View of Validity
- Universal Design in Education
- Wicked Problems
- Zone of Proximal Development
- Threats to Research Validity
- Falsified Data in Large-Scale Surveys
- Hawthorne Effect
- Instrumentation
- Interviewer Bias
- John Henry Effect
- Maturation
- Mortality
- Nonresponse Bias
- Observer Effect
- Placebo Effect
- Reactive Arrangements
- Regression Toward the Mean
- Restriction of Range
- Selection Bias
- Threats to Research Validity
- Treatment Integrity
About the Editor
Bruce B. Frey, Ph.D., is an award-winning researcher, teacher, and professor of educational psychology at the University of Kansas. He is the author of There’s a Stat for That!, Modern Classroom Assessment, and 100 Questions (and Answers) about Tests and Measurement for SAGE and associate editor of SAGE’s Encyclopedia of Research Design. He also wrote Statistics Hacks for O’Reilly Media. His primary research interests include classroom assessment, instrument development, and program evaluation. In his spare time, Bruce leads a secret life as Professor Bubblegum, host of Echo Valley, a podcast that celebrates bubblegum pop music of the late 1960s. The show is wildly popular with the young people.
Contributors
Tineke A. Abma VU University Medical Center
Samuel E. Abrams National Center for the Study of Privatization in Education
Phillip L. Ackerman Georgia Institute of Technology
Robert A. Ackerman University of Texas at Dallas
Christopher M. Adams Fitchburg State University
Allison Jennifer Ames James Madison University
Ji An University of Maryland, College Park
Samantha F. Anderson University of Notre Dame
Heidi Arnouts University of Antwerp
Raman Arora Johns Hopkins University
Diana J. Arya University of California, Santa Barbara
Patricia Teague Ashton University of Florida
Tony Attwood The Minds and Hearts Clinic
Marilyn M. Ault University of Kansas
Karen Badger University of Kentucky
Alison L. Bailey University of California, Los Angeles
Ella G. Banda University of Massachusetts Amherst
Brian R. Barber Kent State University
Nicole Barnes Montclair State University
Gail Vallance Barrington Barrington Research Group, Inc.
Jordan R. Bass University of Kansas
A. Alexander Beaujean Baylor University
Danielle M. Becker University of Minnesota
Thomas J. Beckman Mayo Clinic
Eric T. Beeson Northwestern University
Linda S. Behar-Horenstein University of Florida
John Bell Michigan State University
Aarti Bellara University of Connecticut
Nicholas F. Benson Baylor University
Peter M. Bentler University of California, Los Angeles
Dale E. Berger Claremont Graduate University
Jacquelyn A. Bialo Georgia State University
Magdalena Bielenia-Grajewska University of Gdansk
Scott Bishop Questar Assessment Inc.
Bruce E. Blaine St. John Fisher College
Shane D. Blair University of Kansas
Lorraine Blatt Johns Hopkins University
Joseph K. Blitzstein Teachers College, Columbia University
Linda Dale Bloomberg Teachers College, Columbia University
David Bloome The Ohio State University
Clive R. Boddy Middlesex University
Christian Bokhove University of Southampton
Stella Bollmann Ludwig Maximilians University
Edward L. Boone Virginia Commonwealth University
Marc H. Bornstein National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Robert Boruch University of Pennsylvania
Frank A. Bosco Jr. Virginia Commonwealth University
Alex J. Bowers Teachers College, Columbia University
Richard E. Boyatzis Case Western Reserve University
Michelle L. Boyer University of Massachusetts Amherst
Nancy N. Boyles Southern Connecticut State University
Laine Bradshaw University of Georgia
Alisa Palmer Branham University of Kansas
Mason Lee Branham University of South Carolina
Michael T. Brannick University of South Florida
Markus Brauer University of Wisconsin-Madison
Robert L. Brennan University of Iowa
Tonya Breymier Indiana University East
Ali S. Brian University of South Carolina
Sharon Brisolara Shasta College
Angela Broaddus Benedictine College
Alex Brodersen University of Notre Dame
Jeanne Brooks-Gunn Teachers College, Columbia University
James Dean Brown University of Hawaii at Manoa
Julie C. Brown University of Minnesota, Twin Cities
Mary T. Brownell University of Florida
Alan W. Brue Capella University
Jennifer A. Brussow University of Kansas
Kelley Buchheister University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Frederick Burrack Kansas State University
Gervase R. Bushe Simon Fraser University
Andrew C. Butler University of Texas at Austin
Yuko Goto Butler University of Pennsylvania
Li Cai University of California, Los Angeles
Meghan K. Cain University of Notre Dame
Gregory L. Callan Ball State University
Mitchell Campbell University of Wisconsin-Madison
Emily Cantwell University of Kansas
Kimberly Capp Nova Southeastern University
Nicole Mittenfelner Carl University of Pennsylvania
Thomas R. Carretta Air Force Research Laboratory
Arthur Charpentier Université du Québec à Montréal
Walter Chason University of South Florida
Helen L. Chen Stanford University
Jie Chen University of Kansas
Yi-Hsin Chen University of South Florida
Ying Cheng University of Notre Dame
Yuk Fai Cheong Emory University
Monaliza M. Chian University of California, Santa Barbara
Shriniwas Chinta South West Sydney Area Health Service
Mary M. Chittooran Saint Louis University
Theodore J. Christ University of Minnesota
Christine Ann Christle University of South Carolina
Amy Clark University of Kansas
Nathan H. Clemens University of Texas at Austin
Hamish Coates University of Melbourne
Jill S. M. Coleman Ball State University
Zachary K. Collier University of Florida
Eric Alan Common University of Kansas
Zachary Conrad Kansas Multi-Tier System of Supports
Bryan G. Cook University of Hawaii at Manoa
Kyrsten M. Costlow National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Matthew Gordon Ray Courtney Melbourne Graduate School of Education
Nelson Cowan University of Missouri
Jana Craig-Hare University of Kansas
Bonnie Cramond University of Georgia
Kent J. Crippen University of Florida
Kevin Crouse Rutgers Graduate School of Education
Toni Crouse University of Kansas
Zhongmin Cui ACT, Inc.
Steven Andrew Culpepper St. Olaf College
Arthur J. Cunningham St. Olaf College
Nicholas A. Curtis James Madison University
Joshua A. Danish Indiana University Bloomington
Cynthia S. Darling-Fisher University of Michigan
Judith Davidson University of Massachusetts Lowell
Jennifer Davidtz Nova Southeastern University
Larry Davis Educational Testing Service
Michael E. Dawson University of Southern California
Anita B. Delahay Carnegie Mellon University
Christine E. DeMars James Madison University
Leah Dembitzer Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Angelo S. DeNisi Tulane University
Justin A. DeSimone University of Cincinnati
Maria DeYoreo Duke University
Ronli Diakow New York City Department of Education
Kathryn Doherty Kurtz University of Massachusetts Boston
Thurston A. Domina University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Ashley Donohue Baylor University
Neil J. Dorans Educational Testing Service
John F. Dovidio Yale University
Lyman L. Dukes III University of South Florida St. Petersburg
Danielle N. Dupuis University of Minnesota
Stephanie Dyson Elms University of Kansas
John Joseph Dziak Pennsylvania State University
Meghan Ecker-Lyster University of Kansas
Julianne Michelle Edwards Azusa Pacific University
Anna J. Egalite North Carolina State University
Thorlene Egerton The University of Melbourne
Valeisha M. Ellis Spelman College
Susan E. Embretson Georgia Institute of Technology
Amy S. Gaumer Erickson University of Kansas
Eduardo Estrada Camilo José Cela University
Kimberly Ethridge Nova Southeastern University
Howard T. Everson SRI International
Leandre R. Fabrigar Queen’s University
Carl Francis Falk Michigan State University
Fen Fan University of Massachusetts Amherst
Anna C. Faul University of Louisville
John M. Ferron University of South Florida
David Fetterman Fetterman & Associates
W. Holmes Finch Ball State University
Roger Fischer Montana State University
Helenrose Fives Montclair State University
Sara A. Florence Nova Southeastern University
Timothy Franz St. John Fisher College
Bruce B. Frey University of Kansas
Alon Friedman University of South Florida
Catherine O. Fritz University of Northampton
Kyra N. Fritz University of Louisville
John Mark Froiland Pearson
Danling Fu University of Florida
Matthew B. Fuller Sam Houston State University
Gavin W. Fulmer University of Iowa
Joseph Calvin Gagnon University of Florida
April Galyardt University of Georgia
Copelan Gammon National Institutes of Health
Alejandra Garcia University of Massachusetts Amherst
Andrea M. Garcia University of Kansas
Rachel Darley Gary University of Massachusetts Amherst
Pat J. Gehrke University of South Carolina
Nicholas W. Gelbar University of Connecticut
Claudia A. Gentile NORC at the University of Chicago
Elizabeth T. Gershoff University of Texas at Austin
Dean R. Gerstein Independent Scholar
Iman Ghaderi University of Arizona
Graham R. Gibbs University of Huddersfield
Drew Gitomer Rutgers Graduate School of Education
Lina Goldenberg University of Kansas
Samantha B. Goldstein National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Juana Gómez-Benito University of Barcelona
Roland H. Good Dynamic Measurement Group
Jacqueline D. Goodway The Ohio State University
Brian S. Gordon University of Kansas
Chad M. Gotch Washington State University
Bruce Granshaw Victoria Universtiy
Judith L. Green University of California, Santa Barbara
Jennifer C. Greene University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Judith M. S. Gross University of Kansas
Fei Gu McGill University
Cassandra Guarino University of California, Riverside
Daniel B. Hajovsky University of South Dakota
Kevin A. Hallgren University of Washington
Marc Hallin Université libre de Bruxelles
Lawrence C. Hamilton University of New Hampshire
K. Chris Han Graduate Management Admission Council
Carl B. Hancock The University of Alabama
Gregory R. Hancock University of Maryland, College Park
Maggie Quinn Hannan University of Pittsburgh
Brenda Hannon Texas A&M University-Kingsville
David M. Hansen University of Kansas
Shlomo Hareli University of Haifa
Lisa L. Harlow University of Rhode Island
Jeffrey R. Harring University of Maryland, College Park
Heather D. Harris James Madison University
Judith R. Harrison Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Jessica P. Harvey Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
Richard D. Harvey Saint Louis University
John D. Hathcoat James Madison University
Clifford E. Hauenstein Georgia Institute of Technology
Ellen Hazelkorn Dublin Institute of Technology
Dan He University of Kansas
Lauren M. Henry National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Socorro Herrera Kansas State University
Michael Herriges University of Minnesota
Salome Heyward Salome Heyward and Associates
Tyler Hicks University of Kansas
M. Dolores Hidalgo University of Murcia
Rana S. Hinman University of Melbourne
John M. Hintze University of Massachusetts Amherst
Tyrell Hirchert University of Northern Colorado
David C. Hoaglin University of Massachusetts Medical School
Michael F. Hock University of Kansas
Janice A. Hogle University of Wisconsin-Madison
Søren Holm University of Manchester
S. Jeanne Horst James Madison University
Jessica Hoth Universität Vechta
Carrie R. Houts Vector Psychometric Group, LLC
Kenneth R. Howe University of Colorado Boulder
Lindsay Till Hoyt Fordham University
Mei Hoyt University of North Texas
Hsiu-Fang Hsieh Fooyin University
Bo Hu University of Kansas
Anne Corinne Huggins-Manley University of Florida
Ben P. Hunter University of Kansas School of Medicine-Wichita
R. Shane Hutton Vanderbilt University
Dragos Iliescu University of Bucharest
Paul B. Ingram Texas Tech University
Dianne Nutwell Irving Georgetown University
S. Earl Irving Kia Eke Panuku, The University of Auckland
Dan Ispas Illinois State University
Jessica N. Jacovidis James Madison University
Justin Jager Arizona State University
Lilli Japec Statistics Sweden
Gerard Michael Jellig University of Pennsylvania
Patricia A. Jenkins Albany State University
Rebecca Jesson University of Auckland
Jennifer L. Jewiss University of Vermont
Hong Jiao University of Maryland, College Park
Daniela Jiménez Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile
Maria Jimenez-Buedo Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia
Adam Michael Johansen University of Warwick
Jeffrey P. Johnson Educational Testing Service
Matthew S. Johnson Teachers College, Columbia University
Paul E. Johnson University of Kansas
Robert L. Johnson University of South Carolina
Tessa Johnson University of Maryland, College Park
Natalie D. Jones Claremont Graduate University
Nathan D. Jones Boston University
Seang-Hwane Joo University of South Florida
Jeanette Joyce Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Diana Joyce-Beaulieu University of Florida
George Julnes University of Baltimore
Hyun Joo Jung University of Massachusetts Amherst
Uta Jüttner Hochschule Luzern
David Kahle Baylor University
Irene Kaimi Plymouth University
Matthew P. H. Kan Queen’s University
Jeffrey D. Karpicke Purdue University
Arunprakash T. Karunanithi University of Colorado Denver
Meagan Karvonen University of Kansas
Kentaro Kato Benesse Educational Research and Development
Daniel Katz University of California, Santa Barbara
Ian Katz Saint Louis University
Irvin R. Katz Educational Testing Service
Mira B. Kaufman National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Walter Keenan University of Connecticut
Harrison J. Kell Educational Testing Service
Jessie Kember University of Minnesota
Ana H. Kent Saint Louis University
Ryan J. Kettler Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Haeyoung Kim Korea University
Hyung Jin Kim University of Iowa
Hyung Won Kim University of Texas Rio Grande Valley
Minkyoung Kim Indiana University Bloomington
Yoon Jeon Kim Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Neal Kingston University of Kansas
Allyson J. Kiss University of Minnesota
Karla Kmetz-Morris University of South Florida St. Petersburg
Olga Korosteleva California State University, Long Beach
Rachel Elizabeth Kostura Polk University of Kansas
Laura M. B. Kramer University of Kansas
Parvati Krishnamurty NORC at the University of Chicago
Jeffrey D. Kromrey University of South Florida
Ivar Krumpal University of Leipzig
B. Venkatesh Kumar Tata Institute of Social Sciences
Swapna Kumar University of Florida
Michael Kung University of Florida
Lori Kupczynski Texas A&M University-Kingsville
Carrie La Voy University of Kansas
Chi Yan Lam Queen’s University
Kathleen Lynne Lane University of Kansas
Hongling Lao University of Kansas
Lotta C. Larson Kansas State University
Norman J. Lass West Virginia University
Brandon LeBeau University of Iowa
James M. LeBreton Pennsylvania State University
Thomas Ledermann Utah State University
Kerry Lee University of Auckland
Lina Lee University of New Hampshire
Lisa Lee NORC at the University of Chicago
Won-Chan Lee University of Iowa
Walter L. Leite University of Florida
Hildie Leung The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Janet Tsin-yee Leung The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Daniel Lewis Pacific Metrics Corporation
Chen Li University of Maryland, College Park
Isaac Y. Li University of South Florida
Jianqiang Liang The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Rosemary Luyin Liang The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Dandan Liao University of Maryland, College Park
Gregory Arief D. Liem National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University
Nicholas K. Lim Spalding University
TickMeng Lim Open University Malaysia
Li Lin The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Sheila K. List Virginia Commonwealth University
Haiyan Liu University of Notre Dame
Jingchen Liu Columbia University
Shengtao Liu Hunan University
Xiaofeng Steven Liu University of South Carolina
Yang Liu University of California, Merced
Sarah Lockenvitz Missouri State University
Jill Hendrickson Lohmeier University of Massachusetts Lowell
Stephen W. Loke University of Kansas Medical Center
Patricia D. López San José State University
Sue Lottridge Pacific Metrics Corporation
Patricia A. Lowe University of Kansas
Richard M. Luecht University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Lars Lyberg Lyberg Survey Quality Management Inc.
Cecilia Ma The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
David P. MacKinnon Arizona State University
Joseph Madaus University of Connecticut
Patrick Mair Harvard University
Matthew C. Makel Duke University
Christoforos Mamas University of California, San Diego
Gregory J. Marchant Ball State University
Michael O. Martin Boston College
Phillip K. Martin University of Kansas School of Medicine–Wichita
Julie Masterson Missouri State University
Andrew Maul University of California, Santa Barbara
Brendan Maxcy Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis
Joseph A. Maxwell George Mason University
Scott E. Maxwell University of Notre Dame
Rebecca Mazur University of Massachusetts Amherst
Dominica McBride Become
Michael A. McDaniel Virginia Commonwealth University
Andrew McEachin RAND Corporation
Elizabeth H. McEneaney University of Massachusetts Amherst
Ryan J. McGill College of William and Mary
Jamie C. McGovern University of Kansas Medical Center
Mary L. McHugh Angeles College
Alex McInturff University of California, Berkeley
James McLeskey University of Florida
Miles Allen McNall Michigan State University
David E. Meens University of Colorado Boulder
Valerie Meier University of California, Santa Barbara
Daryl F. Mellard University of Kansas
Krystal Mendez University of Kansas
Sylvia L. Mendez University of Colorado Colorado Springs
Natalja Menold GESIS–Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences
Margaret Kristin Merga Murdoch University
Gabriel J. Merrin University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Craig A. Mertler Arizona State University
Audrey Michal Northwestern University
Milica Miočević Arizona State University
Gregory Mitchell University of Virginia
Monica Morell University of Maryland, College Park
David Morgan Spalding University
Demetri L. Morgan Loyola University Chicago
Grant B. Morgan Baylor University
Carl N. Morris Harvard University
Peter E. Morris Lancaster University and University of Northampton
Kristin M. Morrison Georgia Institute of Technology
Wilfridah Mucherah Ball State University
Jamie R. Mulkey Caveon, LLC
Ina V. S. Mullis Boston College
Karen D. Multon University of Kansas
Sohad Murrar University of Wisconsin-Madison
Angela K. Murray University of Kansas
Brittany Murray University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Dorothy J. Musselwhite University of Georgia
Jessica Namkung University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Oksana Naumenko University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Mario A. Navarro Claremont Graduate University
Kelli L. Netson University of Kansas School of Medicine–Wichita
Kirsten Newell University of Minnesota
Joan Newman University at Albany
Anh Andrew Nguyen Queen’s University
Thu Suong Nguyen Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis
Joseph R. Nichols Saint Louis University
Nicole M. Nickens University of Central Missouri
Kyle Nickodem University of Minnesota
Kathleen H. Nielsen University of Washington
Christopher R. Niileksela University of Kansas
Kim Nimon University of Texas at Tyler
Patricia M. Noonan University of Kansas
Anthony Odland Sanford Health
Laura O’Dwyer Boston College
Insu Paek Florida State University
Qianqian Pan University of Kansas
Ming Fai Pang The University of Hong Kong
Eugene T. Parker University of Kansas
Sarah Parsons University of Southampton
Tracy Paskiewicz University of Massachusetts Boston
Meagan M. Patterson University of Kansas
Michael Quinn Patton Utilization-Focused Evaluation
Trena M. Paulus University of Georgia
Phillip D. Payne Kansas State University
Melissa Pearrow University of Massachusetts Boston
Mark Pedretti Claremont Graduate University
Beverly Pell University of Kansas
Peng Peng University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Marianne Perie University of Kansas
Laura Pevytoe National Institutes of Health
Lia Plakans University of Iowa
Anthony Jason Plotner University of South Carolina
Jonathan A. Plucker Johns Hopkins University
Kelvin Terrell Pompey University of South Carolina
Michael I. Posner University of Oregon
Dmitriy Poznyak Mathematica Policy Research
Ludmila N. Praslova Vanguard University of Southern California
Christopher Prickett Texas A&M University, College Station
Susan Prion University of San Francisco
Joshua N. Pritikin Virginia Commonwealth University
Ana Puig University of Florida
Elisabeth M. Pyburn James Madison University
Patrick Radigan University of Colorado Colorado Springs
Kelsey Ragan Texas A&M University
Sharon F. Rallis University of Massachusetts Amherst
Jennifer Randall University of Massachusetts Amherst
David L. Raunig ICON Clinical Research
Sharon M. Ravitch University of Pennsylvania
Jason Ravitz Google Inc
Randall Reback Barnard College
Lynne M. Reder Carnegie Mellon University
Malcolm James Ree Our Lady of the Lake University
Charles M. Reigeluth Indiana University Bloomington
Sally M. Reis University of Connecticut
Rachel L. Renbarger Baylor University
Matthew R. Reynolds University of Kansas
Melissa N. Richards National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
John T. E. Richardson The Open University, UK
Robert D. Ridge Brigham Young University
Rigoberto Rincones-Gómez University of North Carolina Wilmington
Joseph A. Rios Educational Testing Service
Francisco L. Rivera-Batiz Columbia University
Andrew T. Roach Georgia State University
L. Danielle Roberts-Dahm University of South Florida St. Petersburg
Michael C. Rodriguez University of Minnesota
Liliana Rodríguez-Campos University of South Florida
Mary Roduta Roberts University of Alberta
Bradley D. Rogers University of South Carolina
Jonathan D. Rollins University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Jeanine Romano American Board of Pathology
Benjamin D. Rosenberg Chapman University
Jeffrey N. Rouder University of Missouri
Amber Rowland University of Kansas
David J. Royer University of Kansas
Donald B. Rubin Harvard University
Cort W. Rudolph Saint Louis University
Jennifer Lin Russell University of Pittsburgh
Tonya Rutherford-Hemming University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Thomas G. Ryan Nipissing University
Falak Saffaf Saint Louis University
Stephen Keith Sagarin Berkshire Waldorf School
Johnny Saldaña Arizona State University
Asmalina Saleh Indiana University Bloomington
Courtney B. Sanders James Madison University
Massimiliano Sassoli de Bianchi Laboratorio di Autoricerca di Base
Dorothea Schaffner University of Applied Science Lucerne
Anne M. Schell Occidental College
Heather Schmitt Michigan State University
Stephanie Schmitz University of Northern Iowa
Rachel Watkins Schoenig Cornerstone Strategies, LLC
Ryan W. Schroeder University of Kansas School of Medicine–Wichita
Michael A. Seaman University of South Carolina
Kathleen Sexton-Radek Elmhurst College
Nichola Shackleton University of Auckland
Priti Shah University of Michigan
Sarah Shannon University of Washington
Can Shao University of Notre Dame
Daniel Tan-lei Shek The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Mark D. Shermis University of Houston–Clear Lake
Galit Shmueli National Tsing Hua University
Nicholas J. Shudak University of South Dakota
Boaz Shulruf University of New South Wales
Vivian Shyu University of Colorado Denver
Jason T. Siegel Claremont Graduate University
Satoko Siegel Western University of Health Sciences
Timothy C. Silva Claremont Graduate University
Julius Sim Keele University
Lucinda Simmons Elmhurst College
Stephen G. Sireci University of Massachusetts Amherst
Julie Slayton University of Southern California
Stephanie Snidarich University of Minnesota
Brian Song California State University, Long Beach
Nancy Butler Songer Drexel University
J. E. R. Staddon Duke University and the University of York
Laura M. Stapleton University of Maryland, College Park
Rachel M. Stein University of California, Santa Barbara
Douglas Steinley University of Missouri
Robert J. Sternberg Cornell University
David W. Stewart Loyola Marymount University
David W. Stockburger Missouri State University
Vera Lynne Stroup-Rentier Kansas State Department of Education
Richard R. Sudweeks Brigham Young University
Cindy Suurd Ralph Queen’s University
Sruthi Swami University of California, Santa Barbara
Cara N. Tan Claremont Graduate University
Ser Hong Tan National Institute of Education
Michael Tang University of Colorado Denver
Maciej Taraday Jagiellonian University
Charlotte Tate San Francisco State University
Mohsen Tavakol The University of Nottingham, School of Medicine
Mark S. Teachout University of the Incarnate Word
David Teira Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia
Lee Teitel Harvard University
Alexandru C. Telea University of Groningen
Michael S. Ternes University of Kansas
Jordan Thayer University of Minnesota
Lori A. Thombs University of Missouri
W. Jake Thompson University of Kansas
Martha L. Thurlow University of Minnesota
Gail Tiemann University of Kansas
Rebecca Tipton Baylor University
Sara Tomek The University of Alabama
David Torres Irribarra Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile
Meng-Jung Tsai National Taiwan University of Science & Technology
Kayla Tureson Sanford Health
Yvonne H. M. van den Berg Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University
Thomas I. Vaughan-Johnston Queen’s University
Frank R. Vellutino University at Albany
Aldert Vrij University of Portsmouth
Jonathan Wai Duke University Talent Identification Program
Breanna A. Wakar Mathematica Policy Research
Zachary Walker National Institute of Education
Jacqueline Remondet Wall American Psychological Association
Ryan W. Walters Creighton University
Lisi Wang University of Texas at Austin
Xi Wang University of Massachusetts Amherst
Yan Wang University of South Florida
Emily Ward Baylor University
Jackie Waterfield Keele University
Kathryn Weaver University of New Brunswick
David J. Weiss University of Minnesota
Craig Stephen Wells University of Massachusetts Amherst
Jenny C. Wells University of Hawaii at Manoa
Megan E. Welsh University of California, Davis
Brian C. Wesolowski University of Georgia
Colin P. West Mayo Clinic
David Westfall Emporia State University
Anna Wieczorek-Taraday Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology
Christina Wikström Umeå university
Magnus Wikström Umeå university
Immanuel Williams Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Pamela Williamson University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Linda Wilmshurst The Center for Psychology
Stefanie A. Wind The University of Alabama
Steven L. Wise Northwest Evaluation Association
Sara E. Witmer Michigan State University
James Wollack University of Wisconsin-Madison
Kenneth K. Wong Brown University
Rebecca H. Woodland University of Massachusetts Amherst
Heather H. Woodley New York University
Annette Woods Queensland University of Technology
Florence Wu The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Jing Wu The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Yi-Fang Wu ACT, Inc.
Gongjun Xu University of Minnesota
Inbal Yahav Bar Ilan University
Ji Seung Yang University of Maryland, College Park
Yang Lydia Yang Kansas State University
Yanyun Yang Florida State University
Brandon W. Youker Grand Valley State University
Jing Yu University of California, Santa Barbara
Elizabeth R. Zell Stat-Epi Associates, Inc.
April L. Zenisky University of Massachusetts Amherst
Hao Helen Zhang University of Arizona
Kun Zhang Carnegie Mellon University
Zhiyong Zhang University of Notre Dame
Fei Zhao The Citadel
Chunmei Zheng Pearson
Xiaodi Zhou University of Georgia
Qingqing Zhu University of Kansas
Xiaoqin Zhu The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Michele F. Zimowski NORC at the University of Chicago
Bruno D. Zumbo University of British Columbia
Introduction
Educational Research, Measurement, and EvaluationThe title of this encyclopedia seems to cover at least three distinct fields, each of which could easily fill several volumes of its own. Indeed, there are several fine reference works that cover social science research methods, statistics, assessment and measurement, and program evaluation. Some of the nicer examples are already published by SAGE, in fact. Several encyclopedias cover the field of education in general, with a moderate amount of methodological entries, as well. However, these areas, in terms of their methods, activities, and typical variables of interest, are strongly entwined. Program evaluators use methods developed by educational researchers and develop instruments following measurement best practice. Many, maybe most, of the basic measurement statistics and foundational measurement principles were first conceived and developed by educational researchers. Program evaluators tend to be educational researchers, as well, and, of course, use the tools of social science research to reach their conclusions.
The strongest evidence, perhaps, of the symbiotic relationship among educational research, measurement, and program evaluation can be found in the faculty and courses at research universities. It is often the same professors who teach the research courses, the assessment courses, and the evaluation courses. The same is true of the scholarly journals in educational research, measurement, and evaluation. These journals routinely publish studies across all three areas.
Producing a single encyclopedia that covers the wide range of topics across these connected areas allows for a unique contextual dimension that promotes deeper understanding and allows for more effective learning. In addition to reference works, there are textbooks, handbooks, monographs, and other publications focused on various aspects of educational research, measurement, and evaluation, but to date, there exists no major reference guide for students, researchers, and grant writers new to the field or a particular methodology. The encyclopedia fills that gap. This is the first comprehensive A-to-Z reference work that fully explores methods specific to educational research, assessment, measurement, and evaluation. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation is comprehensive and integrates the three methodological areas of scholarship in the science of education. In an era of constant changes in state and federally driven curricular standards and high-stakes testing, a growing need for innovative instructional methods, increased reliance on data-driven decision-making and calls for accountability in research, a shared understanding of the methods of educational research, measurement, and evaluation is more important than ever.
Making an EncyclopediaA project of this size takes many people and a long time. Once a publisher, like SAGE, realizes there is a need for a multi-volume reference work like this, they choose an editor, like me. I was likely chosen because I’ve taught and published across these areas of educational research, measurement, and evaluation.
My first step was to recruit a world-class group of expert advisors, leaders in their field who teach and publish in educational research, measurement and evaluation. I was fortunate to form an Advisory Board of these five nice and wise folks:
- Dr. Rebecca Woodland, University of Massachusetts Amherst
- Dr. Neal Kingston, University of Kansas
- Dr. Jill Lohmeier, University of Massachusetts Lowell
- Dr. William Skorupski, University of Kansas
- Dr. Jonathan Templin, University of Kansas
Together, we began to shape the encyclopedia. What topics or broad categories should be covered? We wanted the emphasis to be on methodology in educational research, measurement, and evaluation, but we also wanted the encyclopedia to cover important theories and common research variables. What entries should be included? Encyclopedia publishers call entry titles “headwords,” and choosing these headwords was critical. In a four-volume encyclopedia there is only room for so many headwords (about 700), each headword can only be a certain number of words (about 500 to 3,000), and the right length of each headword varies depending on the importance of the entry. At the end of this process, we identified these broad topics as a framework for what belongs in the encyclopedia:
- Assessment
- Cognitive and Affective Variables
- Data Visualization Methods
- Disabilities and Disorders
- Distributions
- Educational Policies
- Evaluation Concepts
- Evaluation Designs
- Human Development
- Instrument Development
- Organizations and Government Agencies
- Professional Issues
- Publishing
- Qualitative Research
- Research Concepts
- Research Designs
- Research Methods
- Research Tools
- Social and Ethical Issues
- Social Network Analysis
- Statistics
- Teaching and Learning
- Theories and Conceptual Frameworks
- Threats to Research Validity
The reader’s guide, near this introduction, lists all the entries, grouped by these categories, so you can find what you want quickly. Based on these topics, we began identifying entries that an encyclopedia of educational research, measurement, and evaluation should include. We then needed to find hundreds of experts to write the 691 entries in this work. The advisory board suggested names and reserved some entries for themselves, I took a few for myself and began identifying potential authors, and, in what turned out to be a smart move, I hired a bright doctoral student, Alan Nong, to help with the search process. For some entries, there were clear leaders in the field, or authors of key studies to recruit. For other general entries, we searched education, educational psychology, curriculum, and statistics departments at universities throughout the globe. We have some of the top scholars in their field among the authors of these entries.
AcknowledgmentsAmong the experts who authored entries for the encyclopedia are Robert Brennan writing about testing, Craig Mertler writing about standardized scores, Bruno Zumbo writing about psychometrics, Joseph Maxwell writing about mixed methods research and qualitative data analysis, Laura O’Dwyer and Donald Rubin writing about experimental design, Peter Bentler writing about structural equation modeling, and David Fetterman and Michael Quinn Patton writing about evaluation. And literally hundreds of others were willing to contribute, for which I am grateful. You can see a list of all contributors at the front of this encyclopedia. About two years was spent in the recruitment and writing process and the initial stages of review and editing before the encyclopedia was copyedited. I am so impressed with the quality and value of the work done by our authors. Thanks, sincerely, to all of them.
I am most grateful for the fine work and guidance of the friendly people at SAGE. It was Jim Brace-Thompson who, as acquisition editor, promoted the idea to SAGE and first got me involved, and Andrew Boney who took the project on, worked with layout and design, and kept things running smoothly. Jordan Enobakhare helped get things going. Anna Villaseñor taught me how to use the remarkable software system that lets people make encyclopedias. Most of the heavy lifting during the first year or two of this process was done by Susan Moskowitz, who somehow handled the recruitment and enlistment of hundreds of scholars, shepherded their submissions, and worked with their schedules. Shirin Parsavand agreed to be the developmental editor and, though I don’t think we’ve ever met (or been at the same conference at the same time), it seems like we shared an office and this has truly been a team effort with her. As we neared the finish line, David Felts, the production editor for the encyclopedia, took the reins to move us through the final gates. Thank you, SAGE editors and staff, as you all are really first rate and so good at what you do. Finally, I am so thankful for the material and moral support of my wife, Bonnie Johnson. She is a finer scholar than I.
10.4135/9781506326139.n5 -
Appendix A: Resource Guide
Agencies and Organizations- American Educational Research Association (AERA): http://www.aera.net/
A professional organization founded in 1916 comprised of educational researchers from the United States and around the world. AERA’s mission is to advance knowledge about education, encourage scholarly inquiry related to education, and promote the use of research to improve education and serve the public good.
- American Evaluation Association (AEA): http://www.eval.org/
AEA is a professional association of evaluators devoted to the application and exploration of program evaluation, personnel evaluation, technology, and many other forms of evaluation.
- American Institutes for Research (AIR): http://www.air.org/
Founded in 1946, AIR is one of the largest nonprofit behavioral and social science research and evaluation organizations in the world.
- American Psychological Association (APA): http://www.apa.org/
The primary professional organization for psychologists.
- Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP): http://caepnet.org/
First recognized in 2013, CAEP seeks to advance equity and excellence in educator preparation through evidence-based accreditation of programs at the certificate, licensure, associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s, post-baccalaureate, and doctoral levels in degree-granting institutions of higher education. CAEP is a consolidation of the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and the Teacher Education Accreditation Council (TEAC).
- Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST): http://cresst.org/
Founded in 1966, CRESST conducts research focused on assessment, evaluation, methodology, and technology to improve student learning and educational outcomes.
- Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO): http://www.ccsso.org/
CCSSO is a national nonprofit organization of public officials who head departments of elementary and secondary education in the states, the District of Columbia, the Department of Defense Education Activity, and five U.S. extra-state jurisdictions. CCSSO provides leadership, advocacy, and technical assistance on major educational issues.
- Institute of Education Sciences (IES): https://ies.ed.gov/
IES, part of the U.S. Department of Education, is a leading source for rigorous, independent education research, evaluation, and statistics in the United States. IES includes several centers including the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), and National Center for Special Education Research (NCSER).
- Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation (JCSEE): http://www.jcsee.org/
Created in 1975, the Joint Committee is a coalition of major professional associations in the United States and Canada concerned with the quality of educational evaluation.
- National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS): http://nbpts.org/
Established in 1987, NBPTS is an independent, nonprofit organization working to advance the quality of teaching and learning for all students.
- National Center for Education Statistics (NCES): https://nces.ed.gov/
Located within the Institute of Education Sciences, NCES fulfills a Congressional mandate to collect, collate, analyze, and report complete statistics on the condition of American education; conduct and publish reports; and review and report on education activities internationally.
- National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE): https://ies.ed.gov/ncee
Part of the IES, NCEE helps educators and policy makers make evidence-based decisions about educational programming. It conducts large-scale evaluations of federally funded education programs and practices, supports locally developed research projects and technical assistance through ten Regional Educational Laboratories (https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs), and the dissemination of research through the What Works Clearinghouse (https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc), the National Library of Education, and the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) online database.
- National Center for Special Education Research (NCSER): https://ies.ed.gov/ncser/
An IES center, NCSER supports rigorous research on children and youth with and at risk for disabilities by advancing the understanding of and practices for teaching, learning, and organizing education systems.
- National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME): http://www.ncme.org/NCME
The primary professional organization for psychometricians.
- National Science Foundation (NSF): https://www.nsf.gov/
NSF is a US federal agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering.
- Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): http://www.oecd.org/
The OECD exists to promote policies that will improve the economic and social well-being of all people worldwide. It enables governmental agencies to work together to understand what drives educational, economic, social, and environmental change. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is sponsored by the OECD.
- Research Triangle Institute (RTI): https://www.rti.org/
RTI is an independent, nonprofit organization that provides research, development, and technical services to government and commercial clients worldwide on subjects that include education and workforce development.
- WestEd: https://www.wested.org/
WestEd is a nonpartisan, nonprofit research, development, and service agency that resulted from a 1966 merger of the Southwest Regional Educational Laboratory (SWRL) and the Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development (FWL). WestEd provides consulting and technical assistance, evaluation, policy analysis, professional development, and research to improve learning and promote healthy development.
- What Works Clearinghouse: https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/
WWC reviews research on educational interventions and policies.
Books- Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Orlando, FL: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Widely used textbook and guide to basic educational measurement issues and item response theory.
- Frey, B. B. (2015). There’s a stat for that!: What to do & when to do it. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
A comprehensive guide for matching the right statistic with the right research design.
- Kuhn, T. S. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Introduced the concept of research paradigms as a way of understanding scientific methodology.
- Linn, R.L. (Ed.) (1987). Educational measurement (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Full of important chapters, including Samuel Messick’s classic article presenting the unitary view of validity.
- Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (Vol. 41). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
A very understandable and approachable guide to qualitative research.
- Shadish, W.R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Classic analysis of the varied threats to research validity and what can be done to protect against them.
- Siegel, S., & Castellan, N. J. (1988). Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. New York: McGraw Hill.
Still one of the few comprehensive guides for the use of nonparametric statistics in social science research.
Journals- American Educational Research Journal: http://www.aera.net/Publications/Journals/American-Educational-Research-Journal
The flagship journal for the American Educational Research Association.
- Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice: https://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Publication/Educational_Measurement/NCME/Publication/Measurement.aspx
An NCME journal aimed at practitioners.
- Educational Researcher: http://www.aera.net/Publications/Journals/Educational-Researcher
Publishes research on a wide variety of topics in educational science.
- Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics: http://www.aera.net/Publications/Journals/Journal-of-Educational-Behavioral-Statistics
Focuses on new approaches to data analysis.
- Journal of Educational Measurement: https://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Publication/Journal_of_Educational_Measurement/NCME/Publication/Journal.aspx?hkey=6380e466-a3ec-4154-b06f-96888a76ec97
Produced by the National Council on Measurement in Education, this journal publishes original research and introduces new instruments.
- Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation: http://pareonline.net/
PARE is an online journal providing access to refereed articles that can have a positive impact on assessment, research, evaluation, and teaching practice.
- Review of Educational Research: http://www.aera.net/Publications/Journals/Review-of-Educational-Research
Publishes major literature reviews of educational topics.
Policies and Standards- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): https://sites.ed.gov/idea/
First approved in 1975 as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act and renamed in 1990, IDEA, Public Law 94–142, mandates that all children ages 3–21 have a right to a free and appropriate education designed to meet their education needs. Education and related services must be provided in the most appropriate and least restrictive environment.
- InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards: http://www.ccsso.org/Documents/2011/InTASC_Model_Core_Teaching_Standards_2011.pdf
Developed in 2011 by CCSSO’s Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC), the Model Core Teaching Standards outline what teachers should know and be able to do to ensure every K-12 student reaches the goal of being ready to enter college or the workforce in today’s world. These standards outline the common principles and foundations of teaching practice.
Web Resources- ERIC Document Reproduction Services: https://eric.ed.gov/
An Institute of Education Sciences service that accepts, stores, and provides scholarly reports and articles.
- The Evaluation Center at Western Michigan University: https://wmich.edu/evaluation
This site provides guidelines and evaluation checklists for planning and conducting evaluations.
- National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/
NAEP, known as “The Nation’s Report Card,” is the largest nationally representative and continuing assessment of what students in the United States know in various subject areas. In 2017, NAEP began administering digitally based assessments (DBA) for mathematics, reading, and writing, with additional subjects to be added in 2018 and 2019.
- Online Evaluation Resource Library: https://oerl.sri.com/home.html
Sponsored by the National Science Foundation, this site provides resources for creating evaluation plans, data collection instruments, and evaluation reports.
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Online Education Database: http://www.oecd.org/education/database.htm
Home to a variety of up-to-date international education statistics.
- Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA): http://www.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa/
PISA is a triennial international assessment intended to evaluate education systems by testing the science, mathematics, reading, collaborative problem solving, and financial literacy knowledge of 15-year-old students worldwide. In 2015 over half a million students from 72 countries took the exam.
- ProQuest Education Database: http://www.proquest.com/products-services/pq_ed_journals.html
Database focusing on the theory and practice of education with more than 1,000 full-text journals and 18,000 dissertations.
- PsychINFO: http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/index.aspx
Provides citations and references for social science researchers.
- W.K. Kellogg Foundation Evaluation Handbook: http://www.wkkf.org/resource-directory/resource/2010/w-k-kellogg-foundation-evaluation-handbook
This site provides an evaluation framework for project directors and others interested in program evaluation.
- Research Methods Knowledge Base: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/index.php
This is a web-based textbook that provides extensive information about various research methods and analyses used in social sciences.
Appendix B: Chronology
Date Event 600 Around this time, the Chinese dynasties of Sui and, later, T’ang, begin relying on a standardized system of imperial examination called Keju to identify talented people for future positions in civil service. 1599 Edward Wright publishes a book on navigation suggesting the use of the median to summarize observations. 1733 While exploring coin flipping, Abraham de Moivre studies what becomes known as the normal curve. 1761 Thomas Bayes suggests a method of estimating likelihood of occurrences that becomes known as Bayes’ Theorem. 1786 William Playfair introduces line charts and bar charts. 1792 British professor, chemist and engineer, William Farish, assigns quantities (grades) to evaluate his students’ performance. This allows him to rank students. 1802 Pierre-Simon Laplace estimates the population of France using sample data. 1805 Adrien-Marie Legendre is the first of several who independently develop the method of least squares to make more precise estimates of population parameters. 1810 The Central Limit Theorem is introduced by Pierre-Simon Laplace. 1835 Adolphe Quetelet describes human traits as normally distributed, varying around a mean. 1845 Horace Mann advocates standardized essay testing for Massachusetts schools. 1852 Massachusetts enacts the first compulsory education law in the United States. 1857 The first teachers’ union, the National Teachers Association (NTA) (now the National Education Association) is launched. 1866 New York Regents Examination Program begins. 1879 Sir Francis Galton uses the term psychometric to describe psycho-physical research. 1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first psychology lab in Germany, which leads to the idea that psychology and related social sciences, such as education, could be studied as a science. 1896 The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Plessy v. Ferguson, upholding the doctrine of “separate but equal” that justified racial segregation in facilities that included schools. 1897 James Rice uses spelling tests in a research study. He uses these scores to compare the teaching of spelling across schools and presents what is considered the first educational program evaluation report. 1899 William James publishes “Talks to Teachers.” 1900 The College Board is founded to develop college entrance exams. 1904 Edward Thorndike publishes An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements. 1904 Charles Spearman develops factor analysis, g theory, and classical test theory. 1905 The first standardized intelligence test, the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, is introduced to identify students in French schools with intellectual disabilities. 1908 William Sealy Gosset, while working for a brewery, develops a simple method for estimating population means using small samples. Ronald Fisher later refined this formula into the t test. 1913 John Watson publishes an article introducing what he called behaviorism and suggests that as a social science, psychology should be studied objectively through observation of behavior, both human and animal. 1913 Henry Goddard begins using intelligence testing on immigrants at Ellis Island. 1914 Frederick Kelly introduces the Kansas Silent Reading Test, the first test to use the multiple-choice test format to reduce subjectivity in teacher scoring and grading. 1916 An American version of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, the Stanford-Binet, is introduced. 1916 The American Educational Research Association (AERA) is founded. 1916 Boston schools are evaluated based on locally developed tests. 1917 The United States enters World War I and the Army Alpha intelligence test is introduced to assess large numbers of enlistees in groups. 1918 Education is compulsory in all US states. 1921 The Psychological Corporation is founded to produce standardized testing materials. 1924 Ronald Fisher publishes what becomes known as the F distribution and begins developing the experimental design that allows for analysis of variance. 1925 The book Statistical Methods for Research Workers by Ronald Fisher is published. Among the statistical concepts introduced in the book are meta-analysis, using .05 as the level of significance, and using 1.96 standard deviations or standard errors to produce confidence intervals. 1926 The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) for admission into higher education is first introduced. The test would later be known as the Scholastic Achievement Test and finally just as the SAT. 1928 Louis Thurstone publishes “Attitudes Can Be Measured” in the American Journal of Sociology, introducing an interval-level method for measuring attitude. Date Event 1932 Rensis Likert publishes “A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes” in the Archives of Psychology, introducing an attitude assessment procedure that evolved into the very popular “Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree” scaling format. 1932 Ralph Tyler suggests that evaluation should be objectives oriented. This remains the predominant approach. 1935 The Psychometric Society is formed. 1935 Ronald Fisher publishes The Design of Experiments, the first textbook on experimental design. 1938 The National Association of Teachers of Educational Measurement (now The National Council on Measurement in Education) is formed. 1942 Edward Guthrie publishes ATheory of Contiguity which suggests learning could not be explained simply by the idea of conditioning but that the events surrounding stimuli and responses were also important. 1942 Ralph Tyler publishes the “General Statement on Evaluation” in the Journal of Educational Research, describing the activities of evaluators. 1946 The American Institutes for Research (AIR) is founded. 1949 The Graduate Research Examination (GRE) is first used for admissions to master’s and doctoral degree programs. 1950 Abraham Wald publishes the book Statistical Decision Functions. 1954 The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Brown v. Board of Education. It reverses the 1896 decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, ruling that separate is not equal and outlawing segregation in schools. 1954 The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) is founded. 1956 Benjamin Bloom and others present a taxonomy of educational objectives that places learning objectives onto a six-level hierarchy ranging from low level memorized knowledge to high level understanding at the evaluation level. 1959 The ACT test is introduced. The organization that produces the test, American College Testing, is now known simply as ACT, Inc. 1960 Jerome Bruner publishes The Process of Education, which explores the role of structure in learning. 1960 Georg Rasch introduces what became known as the Rasch model, a measurement approach that weighs test items based partly on item difficulty. 1961 Albert Bandura publishes the first of his Bobo doll studies suggesting children learn vicariously through watching adult behaviors. 1962 Banesh Hoffman publishes his harsh criticism of standardized multiple-choice high stakes tests, Tyranny of Testing. 1962 Thomas Kuhn publishes The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, which introduces the ideas of research paradigms and paradigm shifts. 1962 Lev Vygostky’s work is first published in English. His idea of a zone of proximal development, referring to the amount of learning possible when guided by an adult or collaborating with “more capable peers,” eventually enters the mainstream. 1963 Robert Glaser uses the term criterion-referenced tests in an article about measuring learning outcomes. Criterion-referenced tests, as opposed to norm-referenced tests, produce scores that are meant to be interpreted against a set of performance standards. 1963 Stanley Milgram begins his obedience to authority studies in which subjects were instructed to give electrical shocks to other subjects. Controversy about the effects on subjects who followed the instructions informs modern human subject protection ethics. 1965 The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) is signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson. It mandates equal access to education, high standards, and accountability. 1965 The Higher Education Act of 1965 is passed by Congress and signed into law by President Johnson. 1966 Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST) is founded. 1966 Donald Campbell and Julian Stanley distinguish between experimental designs that have random assignment to groups and quasi-experimental designs that do not. 1967 Michael Scriven distinguishes between summative evaluation (making a judgment about the effectiveness of a program after it is completed) and formative evaluation (providing feedback during the time a program is still underway). 1968 The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 is enacted, offering federal aid to local school districts in assisting them to address the needs of children with limited English-speaking ability. 1968 Benjamin Bloom uses Michael Scriven’s terms of summative and formative evaluation to describe summative and formative assessment. 1972 Carol Weiss publishes the book, Evaluation Research. 1972 Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 prohibits discrimination based on sex. It legislates equal access, opportunity, and treatment for female students in education, including in school athletics. 1973 George Box and George Tiao publish the book Bayesian Inference in StatisticalAnalysis, which reintroduces Bayesian analysis to the mainstream. 1975 Congress first enacted the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142), which was reauthorized in 1990 as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and in 2004 as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act. 1975 The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation (JCSEE) is created. 1983 Daniel Stufflebeam publishes a journal article presenting the CIPP model of program evaluation, which frames evaluations by context, inputs, process, and products. Date Event 1983 George Madaus, Michael Scriven, and Daniel Stufflebeam publish Evaluation Models: Viewpoints on Educational and Human Services Evaluation. 1983 President Ronald Reagan’s National Commission on Excellence in Education issues A Nation at Risk. The report sounds an alarm about what it indicates is severe underperformance of American schools compared to schools elsewhere. 1985 Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba publish the book Naturalistic Inquiry, which presents a qualitative framework for social science research and provides an alternative to the quantitative paradigm. 1986 The American Evaluation Association is formed from the merger of the Evaluation Research Society and Evaluation Network. 1987 Blaine Worthen and James Sanders publish Educational Evaluation: AlternativeApproaches and Practical Guidelines. 1988 Robert Sternberg publishes The Triarchic Mind which defines intelligence as cognitive self-management. 1993 The Massachusetts Education Reform Act requires a common curriculum and statewide tests. Other states follow Massachusetts’ lead and implement similar high-stakes testing programs. 1994 The Goals 2000: Educate America Act is signed into law by President Bill Clinton. 1994 The Improving America’s Schools Act (IASA) is signed into law by President Bill Clinton, reauthorizing the ESEA of 1965. 1994 A chapter by Anselm Strauss and Juliet Corbin on grounded theory is included in the Handbook of Qualitative Research. Grounded theory emphasizes building theory that is faithful to the data. 1998 The Higher Education Act is amended and reauthorized, requiring institutions and states to produce “report cards” about teacher education. 2000 Diane Ravitch publishes the book, Left Back: A Century of Failed School Reforms, which criticizes progressive educational policies and argues for a more traditional, academically oriented education. 2002 The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) is signed into law by President George W. Bush. The reauthorization of the ESEA required schools and school districts to meet targets on annual statewide standardized tests and called for all students to be proficient in reading and math by 2014. 2004 The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is reauthorized as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act. The new law requires school districts to use the response to intervention (RTI) approach with the overall goal of reducing the need for special education services. 2004 Ready or Not: Creating a High School Diploma That Counts, the culminating report of the American Diploma Project (ADP), highlights discrepancies between employers’ and colleges’ academic demands for high school students and states’ high school graduation expectations. 2009 The Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) coordinated by the National Governors Association and the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) is launched. By 2012, all but five states had adopted the Common Core standards in both English and math. 2009 Race to the Top initiative (RTTT), a $4.35 billion program designed to induce K–12 education reform is enacted as part of the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act. 2010 Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) is formed to create and deploy a standard set of K–12 assessments in mathematics and English based on the Common Core State Standards. 2012 The Next Generation Science Standards are released. 2013 The Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP) is formed from the consolidation of NCATE and TEAC. 2015 The Every Student Succeeds Act is passed by Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama, replacing NCLB. ESSA gave states more flexibility than NCLB in setting targets for school and district performance. 2017 For the first time the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) begins administering digitally based assessments. - American Educational Research Association (AERA): http://www.aera.net/