
Encyclopedia of Race and Crime
Encyclopedias
Publication Year: 2009
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412971928
Subject: Race, Ethnicity & Crime, Ethnic Studies
- Reader's Guide
- Entries A-Z
- Subject Index
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Editorial Board
EditorsHelen Taylor Greene, Texas Southern University
Shaun L. Gabbidon, Pennsylvania State University, Harrisburg
Editorial BoardMarvin D. Free, Jr., University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Delores Jones-Brown, John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Ramiro Martinez, Jr., Florida International University
Everette B. Penn, University of Houston, Clearlake
Vernetta D. Young, Howard University
Managing EditorElycia S. Daniel, Sam Houston State University
Copyright
Copyright © 2009 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Encyclopedia of race and crime / editors, Helen Taylor Greene, Shaun L. Gabbidon.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4129-5085-5 (cloth)
1. Crime and race—United States—Encyclopedias. 2. Criminal justice, Administration of—United States—Encyclopedias. 3. Discrimination in criminal justice administration—United States—Encyclopedias. 4. Minorities—United States—Encyclopedias. I. Greene, Helen Taylor, 1949– II. Gabbidon, Shaun L., 1967–
HV6789.E43 2009
364.973089—dc22 2008045849
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
09 10 11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Publisher: Rolf A. Janke
Assistant to the Publisher: Michele Thompson
Acquisitions Editor: Jim Brace-Thompson
Developmental Editor: Diana E. Axelsen
Reference Systems Manager: Leticia Gutierrez
Reference Systems Coordinator: Laura Notton
Production Editor: Tracy Buyan
Copy Editors: Colleen B. Brennan, Pam Suwinsky
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreaders: Kevin Gleason, Andrea Martin
Indexer: Joan Shapiro
Cover Designer: Bryan Fishman
Marketing Manager: Amberlyn McKay
List of Entries
- . See
- . See
- . See
- . See
- Black Codes
- Brown v. City of Oneonta
- Brown v. Mississippi
- Death Penalty
- Escobedo v. Illinois
- Illinois v. Wardlow
- Mapp v. Ohio
- Maryland v. Wilson
- Miranda v. Arizona
- Moore v. Dempsey
- Norris v. Alabama
- Petit Apartheid
- Profiling, Ethnic: Use by Police and Homeland Security
- Terry v. Ohio
- United States v. Armstrong
- United States v. Booker
- United States v. Brignoni-Ponce
- United States v. Wheeler
- . See
Reader's Guide
The Reader's Guide is provided to assist readers in locating entries on related topics. It classifies entries into 14 general topical categories: (1) Biographies, (2) Cases, (3) Concepts and Theories, (4) Corrections, (5) Courts, (6) Drugs, (7) Juvenile Justice, (8) Media, (9) Organizations, (10) Police, (11) Public Policy, (12) Race Riots, (13) Specific Populations, and (14) Violence and Crime.
- Biographies
- Abu-Jamal, Mumia
- Bonger, Willem Adriaan
- Brown, Lee P.
- Bully-Cummings, Ella
- Byrd, James, Jr.
- Cochran, Johnnie
- Davis, Angela
- Du Bois, W. E. B.
- Ferguson, Colin
- Frazier, E. Franklin
- Goetz, Bernard
- Harvard, Beverly
- Higginbotham, A. Leon, Jr.
- Houston, Charles Hamilton
- Jackson, George
- King, Rodney
- Mann, Coramae
- McVeigh, Timothy
- Peltier, Leonard
- Pictou-Aquash, Anna Mae
- Thomas, Clarence
- Till, Emmett
- Walker, Zachariah
- Ward, Benjamin
- Wells-Barnett, Ida B.
- Wilson, Genarlow
- Work, Monroe Nathan
- Cases
- Batson v. Kentucky
- Brown v. City of Oneonta
- Brown v. Mississippi
- Castaneda v. Partida
- Coker v. Georgia
- Dred Scott Case
- Duke University Assault Case
- Escobedo v. Illinois
- Furman v. Georgia
- Gregg v. Georgia
- Illinois v. Wardlow
- In re Gault
- Jena 6
- Johnson v. California
- Kennedy v. Louisiana
- Kimbrough v. United States
- Mapp v. Ohio
- Martinsville Seven
- Maryland v. Wilson
- McCleskey v. Kemp
- Miranda v. Arizona
- Missouri v. Celia, a Slave
- Moore v. Dempsey
- Norris v. Alabama
- O. J. Simpson Case
- Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe
- Powell v. Alabama
- Roper v. Simmons
- State v. Soto
- Tennessee v. Garner
- Terry v. Ohio
- Till, Emmett
- United States v. Antelope
- United States v. Armstrong
- United States v. Booker
- United States v. Brignoni-Ponce
- United States v. Wheeler
- Whren v. United States
- Concepts and Theories
- Alienation
- Biological Theories
- Birth of a Nation, The
- Black Criminology
- Black Ethnic Monolith
- Black Feminist Criminology
- Chicago School of Sociology
- Code of the Streets
- Colonial Model
- Community Policing
- Conflict Theory
- Conservative Criminology
- Convict Criminology
- Convict Lease System
- Cool Pose
- Crime Statistics and Reporting
- Criminalblackman
- Critical Race Theory
- Critical White Studies
- Culture Conflict Theory
- Deportation
- Discrimination-Disparity Continuum
- Environmental Crime
- Environmental Racism
- Ethnicity
- Fear of Crime
- Focal Concerns Theory
- Focal Concerns Theory, Labeling
- Gender Entrapment Theory
- General Theory of Crime
- Ghetto, Ethnoracial Prison
- Great Migration
- Hurricane Katrina
- Hypermasculinity
- Inequality Theory
- Institutional Racism
- IQ
- Labeling Theory
- Latina/o Criminology
- Marshall Hypotheses
- Masculinity and Crime
- Minority Group Threat
- Moral Panics
- Myth of a Racist Criminal Justice System
- Peace Pledge
- Petit Apartheid
- Racial Hoax
- Racialization of Crime
- Restorative Justice
- r/K Theory
- Scarface Myth
- Social Capital
- Social Construction of Reality
- Social Control Theory
- Social Disorganization Theory
- Social Distance
- Social Justice
- Strain Theory
- Structural-Cultural Perspective
- Subculture of Violence Theory
- “Truly Disadvantaged”
- White Crime
- White Privilege
- Corrections
- Attica Prison Revolt
- Boot Camps, Adult
- Boot Camps, Juvenile
- Chain Gangs
- Disproportionate Incarceration
- Faith-Based Initiatives and Prisons
- Felon Disenfranchisement
- Innocence Project
- Intermediate Sanctions
- Political Prisoners
- Prison, Judicial Ghetto
- Prison Abolition
- Prisoner Reentry
- Prisoners, Infectious Diseases and
- Prison Gangs
- Private Prisons
- Recidivism
- Statistics and Race and Crime: Accessing Data Online (Appendix B)
- Supermax Prisons
- Wrongful Convictions
- Courts
- Baldus Study
- Capital Jury Project
- Drug Courts
- Jury Nullification
- Jury Selection
- Native American Courts
- Plea Bargaining
- Presentencing
- Race Card, Playing the
- Sentencing
- Sentencing Disparities, African Americans
- Sentencing Disparities, Latina/o/s
- Sentencing Disparities, Native Americans
- Statistics and Race and Crime: Accessing Data Online (Appendix B)
- Wilmington Ten
- Drugs
- Anti-Drug Abuse Acts
- CIA Drug Scandal
- Cocaine Laws
- Crack Babies
- Crack Epidemic
- Crack Mothers
- Decriminalization of Drugs
- Drug Cartels
- Drug Courts
- Drug Dealers
- Drug Sentencing
- Drug Sentencing, Federal
- Drug Trafficking
- Drug Treatment
- Drug Use
- Drug Use by Juveniles
- Harrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914
- Methamphetamine
- Native Americans and Substance Abuse
- Statistics and Race and Crime: Accessing Data Online (Appendix B)
- Tulia, Texas, Drug Sting
- War on Drugs
- Juvenile Justice
- At-Risk Youth
- Black Codes
- Boot Camps, Juvenile
- Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence
- Children of Female Offenders
- Child Savers
- Cultural Literacy
- Culturally Specific Delinquency Programs
- Delinquency and Victimization
- Delinquency Prevention
- Disproportionate Minority Contact and Confinement
- Evidence-Based Delinquency Prevention for Minority Youth
- Faith-Based Initiatives and Delinquency
- Family and Delinquency
- Female Juvenile Delinquents
- General Theory of Crime
- Hip Hop, Rap, and Delinquency
- Houses of Refuge
- Juvenile Crime
- Juvenile Drug Courts
- Juvenile Waivers to Adult Court
- Mentoring Programs
- Reformatories
- School Shootings
- Self-Esteem and Delinquency
- Statistics and Race and Crime: Accessing Data Online (Appendix B)
- Status Offenses
- Superpredators
- Victimization, Youth
- Violent Juvenile Offenders
- Youth Gangs
- Youth Gangs, Prevention of
- Zero Tolerance Policies
- Media
- Blaxploitation Movies
- Media, Print
- Media Portrayals of African Americans
- Media Portrayals of Asian Americans
- Media Portrayals of Latina/o/s
- Media Portrayals of Native Americans
- Media Portrayals of White Americans
- Movies
- Public Opinion, Death Penalty
- Public Opinion, Juvenile Delinquency
- Public Opinion, Police
- Public Opinion, Punishment
- Public Opinion Polls
- Television Dramas
- Television News
- Television Reality Shows
- Video Games
- Organizations
- Alliance for Justice
- Anti-Defamation League
- Atlanta University School of Sociological Research
- Baldus Study
- Black Panther Party
- Brown Berets
- Bureau of Indian Affairs
- Guardians, The (Police Associations)
- Historically Black Colleges and Universities
- John Jay College Center on Race, Crime and Justice
- Ku Klux Klan
- Latino Justice PRLDEF
- League of United Latin American Citizens
- NAACP Legal Defense Fund
- National African American Drug Policy Coalition
- National American Indian Court Judges Association
- National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
- National Association of Blacks in Criminal Justice
- National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement
- National Council of La Raza
- National Criminal Justice Association
- National Native American Law Enforcement Association
- National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives
- National Tribal Justice Resource Center
- National Urban League
- Nation of Islam
- Northeastern University Institute on Race and Justice
- 100 Blacks in Law Enforcement Who Care
- Sentencing Project, The
- Southern Poverty Law Center
- Universal Negro Improvement Association
- U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Civil Rights
- Vera Institute of Justice
- W. Haywood Burns Institute for Juvenile Justice Fairness and Equity
- Police
- Boston Gun Project
- COINTELPRO and Covert Operations
- Disproportionate Arrests
- DNA Profiling
- Police Accountability
- Police Action, Citizens' Preferences
- Police Corruption
- Police Use of Force
- Profiling, Ethnic: Use by Police and Homeland Security
- Profiling, Mass Murderer
- Profiling, Racial: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives
- Profiling, Serial Killer
- Rampart Investigation
- Slave Patrols
- Statistics and Race and Crime: Accessing Data Online (Appendix B)
- Tasers
- Tribal Police
- Public Policy
- Anti-Drug Abuse Acts
- Chinese Exclusion Act
- Christopher Commission
- Dyer Bill
- Gang Injunctions
- Hate Crimes Statistics Act
- Immigration Legislation
- Immigration Policy
- Indian Civil Rights Act
- Indian Self-Determination Act
- Ku Klux Klan Act
- Mandatory Minimums
- Mediation in Criminal Justice
- Mollen Commission
- National Commission on Law Observation and Enforcement
- No-Fly Lists
- Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act
- Operation Wetback
- President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice
- President's Initiative on Race
- Racial Justice Act
- Three Strikes Laws
- Tuskegee Syphilis Study
- War on Terror
- Willie Bosket Law
- Race Riots
- Chicago Race Riot of 1919
- Detroit Riot of 1967
- Elaine Massacre of 1919 (Phillips County, Arkansas)
- Harlem Race Riot of 1935
- Los Angeles Race Riot of 1965
- Los Angeles Race Riots of 1992
- Miami Riot of 1980
- Race Riots
- Rosewood, Florida, Race Riot of 1923
- Tulsa, Oklahoma, Race Riot of 1921
- Zoot Suit Riots
- Specific Populations
- African American Gangs
- African Americans
- Arab Americans
- Asian American Gangs
- Asian Americans
- Consumer Racial Profiling
- Dehumanization of Blacks
- European Americans
- Female Gangs
- Human Trafficking
- Immigrants and Crime
- Jamaican Posse
- Japanese Internment
- Latina/o/s
- Latino Gangs
- Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13)
- Mariel Cubans
- Militias
- Minutemen
- Model Minorities
- Native Americans
- Native Americans: Culture, Identity, and the Criminal Justice System
- Native Americans and Substance Abuse
- Prison Gangs
- Rastafarians
- Religious Minorities
- Statistics and Race and Crime: Accessing Data Online (Appendix B)
- Violent Females
- White Gangs
- White Supremacists
- Wilmington Ten
- Violence and Crime
- Anti-Semitism
- Central Park Jogger
- Child Abuse
- D.C. Sniper
- Domestic Violence
- Domestic Violence, African Americans
- Domestic Violence, Latina/o/s
- Domestic Violence, Native Americans
- Elder Abuse
- Gambling
- Gringo Justice
- Hate Crimes
- HIV/AIDS
- Homicide Seriousness Dyad
- Immigrants and Crime
- Interracial Crime
- Intraracial Crime
- Lynching
- Native American Massacres
- Opium Wars
- Organized Crime
- Racial Conflict
- Sixteenth Street Baptist Church Bombing
- Skinheads
- Slave Rebellions
- Slavery and Violence
- Statistics and Race and Crime: Accessing Data Online (Appendix B)
- Stop Snitching Campaign
- Victim and Witness Intimidation
- Victimization, African American
- Victimization, Asian American
- Victimization, Latina/o
- Victimization, Native American
- Victimization, White
- Victim Services
- Vigilantism
- Violence Against Girls
- Violence Against Women
- Violent Crime
- Wilding
- Zoot Suit Riots
About the Editors
Helen Taylor Greene is Professor and Interim Chair of the Administration of Justice Department in the Barbara Jordan-Mickey Leland School of Public Affairs at Texas Southern University in Houston, Texas. She authored two of the earliest compilations of contributions by Black authors to the study of criminology and criminal justice. Dr. Greene has also authored and coauthored peer-reviewed articles and book chapters on Black perspectives on crime and criminal justice, delinquency prevention, police brutality, police use of deadly force, community policing, and women in policing. She has coauthored and coedited several books, including African American Classics in Criminology and Criminal Justice (2002), Race and Crime (2005, 2009), and Race, Crime, and Justice: A Reader (2005). Dr. Greene was the corecipient of the Coramae Richey Mann Award for outstanding scholarship in the area of race, ethnicity, and crime in 2005 and recipient of the Coramae Richey Mann Leadership Award in 2007.
Shaun L. Gabbidon is Professor of Criminal Justice in the School of Public Affairs at Penn State Harrisburg. In addition to having authored numerous peer-reviewed articles, he is the author or editor of seven books. His most recent books are Criminological Perspectives on Race and Crime (2007), W. E. B. Du Bois on Crime and Justice: Laying the Foundations of Sociological Criminology (2007), and the newly published Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice: An International Dilemma (2010). Dr. Gabbidon also serves as editor of the State University of New York (SUNY) Press's Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice book series and as coeditor of Routledge's Criminology and Justice Studies series. In 2005, he was the corecipient of the Coramae Richey Mann Award for outstanding scholarship in the area of race, ethnicity, and crime, and in 2007 he was the recipient of Penn State Harrisburg's Faculty Award for Excellence in Research and Scholarly Activity.
Contributors
Dwight Aarons, University of Tennessee
Reem Ali Abu-Lughod, California State University, Bakersfield
Terri M. Adams, Howard University
Efua Akoma, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Heather Alaniz, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Frankie Y. Bailey, State University of New York at Albany
Maldine Bailey, Nova Southeastern University
Tiffiney Y. Barfield-Cottledge, University of North Texas-Dallas Campus
Dawn Beichner, Illinois State University
Ellen H. Belcher, John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Joanne Belknap, University of Colorado
Scott Belshaw, Prairie View A&M University
Mark T. Berg, University of Missouri-St. Louis
Ronald J. Berger, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Lindsey Bergeron, North Dakota State University
Robert L. Bing III, University of Texas at Arlington
Donna M. Bishop, Northeastern University
Ashley G. Blackburn, University of North Texas
Robert M. Bohm, University of Central Florida
Kendra Bowen, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Lorenzo M. Howell, Fayetteville State University
Andrew Bradford, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Michele P. Bratina, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Todd E. Bricker, Shippensburg University
Avi Brisman, Emory University
Willie Brooks, Jr., University of Houston, Victoria
Patricia L. Brougham, Salem International University
Michael P. Brown, Ball State University
Gloria J. Browne-Marshall, John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Christopher Bruell, Northeastern University
Alison S. Burke, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Catherine E. Burton, The Citadel
Frank Butler, La Salle University
Sophia Buxton, Hampton University
Lisa M. Carter, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Abraham Castillo, University of Houston, Clear Lake
David R. Champion, Slippery Rock University
Elsa Y. Chen, Santa Clara University
Liza Chowdhury, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Jennifer Christian, Indiana University, Bloomington
Diane Cismowski, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Shelly Clevenger, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Michael T. Coates, Institute for the Study of Violent Groups
John K. Cochran, University of South Florida
Tyrell Connor, Hampton University
Charles Corley, Michigan State University
George Coroian, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Allison M. Cotton, Metropolitan State College of Denver
Amanda K. Cox, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Ronald O. Craig, Troy University
Tommy Curry, Southern Illinois University
Douglas J. Dallier, Florida State University
Alejandro del Carmen, University of Texas at Arlington
Jo-Ann Delia Giustina, Bridgewater State College
Michael DeValve, Fayetteville State University
Cherie Dawson Edwards, Eastern Kentucky University
Helen Eigenberg, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Christine Eith, Towson University
Traqina Quarles Emeka, University of Houston, Downtown
Peggy A. Engram, University of Houston, Downtown
Monica Erling, University of Wisconsin
Doug Evans, Indiana University, Bloomington
Amy Farrell, Northeastern University
Elizabeth M. Fathman, Saint Louis University
Raúl Fernández-Calienes, St. Thomas University School of Law
Marianne Fisher-Giorlando, Grambling State University
Benjamin Fleury-Steiner, University of Delaware
Allison J. Foley, University of Colorado at Boulder
Antonio Ford, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Rebecca D. Foster, University of North Texas
Kelli Frakes, m Technical Institute
Teresa Francis, Central Washington University
Nadine Frederique, University of Maryland
Marvin D. Free, Jr., University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Brent Funderburk, Indiana University, Bloomington
Huan Gao, California State University, Stanislaus
Tammy S. Garland, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Philip Gasper, Madison Area Technical College
Gilbert Geis, University of California, Irvine
Daniel E. Georges-Abeyie, Texas Southern University
Adrianne Gilbert, Hampton University
Cynthia Golembeski, University of Wisconsin
Sean Goodison, University of Maryland-College Park
Jennifer L. Gossett, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Gilton Christopher Grange, Bridgebuilder Consortium
Megan L. Gray, Sam Houston State University
Shani P. Gray, Valdosta State University
Tanya Greathouse, University of Colorado
Alfonzo Greenidge, Mountain View College
Sean Patrick Griffin, Venn State Abington
Timothy Griffin, University of Nevada, Reno
Georgen Guerrero, Sam Houston State University
Vikas Gumbhir, Gonzaga University
Hong-Le Ha, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Kimetta R. Hairston, Penn State Harrisburg
Anne-Marie Hakstian, Salem State College
Ralph A. Hamlett, Brevard College
Phillip J. Hammons, University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Nicole Hardy, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Kylo-Patrick R. Hart, Plymouth State University
Jennifer Hartsfield, University of Oklahoma
Rebecca Hayes, University of Florida
Ella Henderson, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Geraldine R. Henderson, Northwestern University
Howard Henderson, Sam Houston State University
Martha L. Henderson, The Citadel
Kendrick Henley, Hampton University
George E. Higgins, University of Louisville
Carly M. Hilinski, Grand Valley State University
Elizabeth Hines, University of North Carolina-Wilmington
Marigny Hluza, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Rebecca J. Howell, University of Alabama
Jennifer L. Huck, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Don Hummer, Penn State Harrisburg
Li-Ching Hung, Mississippi State University
Scott Ingram, Indiana University, Bloomington
Robert Irving, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Jessica James, Wesley College
Richard Janikowski, University of Memphis
Michael J. Jenkins, Police Institute
Charles E. Jones, Georgia State University
Marlyn J. Jones, California State University, Sacramento
Nikki Jones, University of California, Santa Barbara
Ebone' Joseph, Hampton University
Lindsey Kane, University of Houston, Clear Lake
David Keys, New Mexico State University
Jonathan Kramer, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania
Kenneth A. Lachlan, Boston College
Jennifer L. Lanterman, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Misha S. Lars, John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Jennifer Lasswell, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Tiffany Latham, Hampton University
Kristin Lavin, Villanova University
John Lemmon, Shippensburg University
Eric Yang Liu, Baylor University
Keith Gregory Logan, Kutztown University
Melissa A. Logue, Saint Joseph's University
Lucien X. Lombardo, Old Dominion University
Billy Long, Indiana University, Southeast
Marilyn D. Lovett, South Carolina State University
Arthur J. Lurigio, Loyola University Chicago
Joan Luxenburg, University of Central Oklahoma
Michael J. Lynch, University of South Florida
David A. Mackey, Plymouth State University
Alison Marganski, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Favian Alejandro Martin, Penn State Harrisburg
Damian J. Martinez, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Ramiro Martinez, Jr., Florida International University
Ryan B. Martz, Michigan State University
Kristy N. Matsuda, University of California, Irvine
James P. Mayes, North Carolina A&T
Darrell McCloud, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Elizabeth H. McConnell, University of Houston, Clear Lake
John A. McConnell, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Jack McDevitt, Northeastern University
Zina McGee, Hampton University
Karen McGuffee, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Kenethia L. Mclntosh, Fayetteville State University
Jerome McKean, Ball State University
Joseph B. McSherry, University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Stephen E. Medvec, Holy Family University
Jon'a F. Meyer, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Vincent E. Miles, Thaddeus Stevens College
Carla Miller, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
J. Mitchell Miller, University of Texas at San Antonio
Debbie Mills, University of Houston, Clear Lake
David R. Montague, University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Patrice K. Morris, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Lisa R. Muftic, University of North Texas
Bahiyyah M. Muhammad, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Robert Muhammad, The Nation of Islam
Ed A. Muñoz, University of Wyoming
Denise D. Nation, Winston-Salem State University
Lorenda A. Naylor, University of Baltimore
Alisa Neilan, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Matthew F. Nichter, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Gwendelyn S. Nisbett, University of Oklahoma
Krystal E. Noga, Central Washington University
Rhonda Y. Ntepp, Metropolitan State College of Denver
Stephanie M. Oakley, Institute for the Study of Violent Groups
Evaristus Obinyan, Albany State University
Dan Okada, Sacramento State University
J. Michael Olivero, Central Washington University
Chibueze W. Onwudiwe, University of Teesside
Ihekwoaba D. Onwudiwe, Texas Southern University
Leanne Owen, Holy Family University
Vivian Pacheco, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Wilson R. Palacios, University of South Florida
Diana Papademas, State University of New York College at Old Westbury
Rhonda Pavlu, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Brian K. Payne, Georgia State University
Terrylynn Pearlman, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Tracy S. Penn, Gardere Law Firm
Wendy Perkins, AMP Center for Crime Prevention & Community Wellness
Rachel Philofsky, University of Maryland
Monica B. Pinalez, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Danny Pirtle, Holy Family University
Alexander W. Pisciotta, Kutztown University
William C. Plouffe, Jr., Kutztown University
Katherine Polzer, Texas Christian University
Margarita Poteyeva, University of Delaware
Hillary Potter, University of Colorado at Boulder
Pamela Preston, Penn State Schuylkill
Byron E. Price, Texas Southern University
Todd F. Prough, Northeastern University
Doris Marie Provine, Arizona State University
Charles E. Reasons, Central Washington University
Sharon RedHawk Love, Ball State University
David A. Rembert, Sam Houston State University
Callie Marie Rennison, University of Missouri-St. Louis
Eran Reya, KMBA Enterprises, LLC
Stephen K. Rice, Seattle University
Kaylene A. Richards-Ekeh, California State University, Sacramento
Jeffrey Ian Ross, University of Baltimore
Lee E. Ross, University of Central Florida
Tawandra L. Rowell, University of Pennsylvania
Mitch Ruesink, Waukesha County Technical College
Jim Ruiz, Penn State Harrisburg
Leila Sadeghi, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Laurie J. Samuel, Metropolitan (DC) Police Department
Kathryn Scarborough, Eastern Kentucky University
Amie R. Scheidegger, Brevard College
Dorothy Moses Schulz, John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Julia E. Selman-Ayetey, King's College London
Martha L. Shockey-Eckles, Saint Louis University
Elithet Silva-Martinez, University of Iowa
Phillippia Simmons, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Barbara Sims, Penn State Harrisburg
Yvonne Sims, Penn State Harrisburg
Sherry Lynn Skaggs, University of Delaware
Cary Stacy Smith, Mississippi State University
Jaclyn Smith, National Institute of Justice
Jacqueline Smith-Mason, Virginia Commonwealth University
Catherine Stern, LaGuardia Community College
Daniel P. Stevens, The Citadel
Eric A. Stewart, Florida State University
Philip Matthew Stinson, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Jacob I. Stowell, University of Massachusetts Lowell
Ivan Y. Sun, University of Delaware
Sam Swindell, Sam Houston State University
Shenique S. Thomas, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Aaron Thompson, Eastern Kentucky University
Sherrise Y. Truesdale-Moore, Minnesota State University, Mankato
Heather R. Tubman-Carbone, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Deonna S. Turner, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Craig D. Uchida, Justice and Security Strategies
Alana Van Gundy-Yoder, Miami University
PJ Verrecchia, York College of Pennsylvania
Maria R. Volpe, John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Courtney A. Wade, North Dakota State University
Randy Wagner, Portland Community College
Jeffery T. Walker, University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Isis N. Walton, Virginia State University
Geoff Ward, University of California, Irvine
Judith Ann Warner, Texas A&M International University
Casey C. Watkins, University of Wyoming
Kelly Welch, Villanova University
Michael Welch, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Jamie L. Weldon, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Elvira White, Fayetteville State University
Kideste M. Wilder-Bonner, John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Patricia Wilkerson, University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Jennifer Williams, University of Houston, Clear Lake
Jerome D. Williams, University of Texas at Austin
L. Susan Williams, Kansas State University
Michael Williams, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Robert W. Williams, Bennett College
Tonya Y. Willingham, Federal Defender Office
Keith A. Wilmot, Florida Atlantic University
Alese C. Wooditch, Penn State Harrisburg
Benjamin S. Wright, University of Baltimore
Yuning Wu, University of Delaware
LaSheila S. Yates, Southern Illinois University
Julie Yingling, Villanova University
Lisa Anne Zilney, Montclair State University
Introduction
The FieldCriminology and criminal justice involve the scientific study of crime, criminals, and the criminal justice system. Interest in the problem of crime began centuries ago, and in the 18th century, after several European countries experienced social unrest, writings about crime began to appear. During the 19th century, social scientists studied social problems, including crime and responses to it. Interest in criminology in the United States began in the late 19th century and flourished in the 20th century. Initially there were two major areas in the study of criminology: theoretical and applied criminology. Theoretical criminology included the etiology of crime, theories of criminality, typologies of crime and criminals, and the extent of crime. Applied criminology included the study of justice agencies and processes, often referred to as criminal justice, as well as the law. Today, the terms criminology and criminal justice are often used interchangeably, and the dichotomy between the two is less clear. For example, some of the subject matter in many criminology and criminal justice textbooks often overlaps although the original foci of each remain.
During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the field of criminology has grown nationally and internationally. Today there are hundreds of undergraduate and graduate programs in the United States. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field of study with contributions to the body of knowledge by economists, historians, political scientists, psychologists, sociologists, and other scholars. The study of criminology and criminal justice has expanded considerably and includes administration of justice, comparative studies, convict criminology, critical analyses, feminist criminology, prisoner reentry, homeland security, juvenile justice, policy analyses, race and crime, and terrorism.
Rationale for the EncyclopediaThe study of race and crime has a long history in the discipline of criminology and the study of criminal justice. In the 19th century Cesare Lombroso, an Italian positivist considered by many to be the father of criminology, suggested that crime was a product of biological factors, including race (Lombroso, 1876/1911). In the early 20th century, some American scholars, including Kellor (1901), Du Bois (1904), Work (1913), Sellin (1928), Moses (1936), Shaw and McKay (1942), and Frazier (1949), countered the biological perspective by noting how social, economic, and political conditions contribute to crime, regardless of race. Early criminology texts devoted whole chapters to race and crime that not only presented crime figures but also sought to explain the trends related to race and crime (Gabbidon & Greene, 2001). At that time, race was a much broader concept that focused on minorities, especially Blacks, and took into consideration the ethnicity of White immigrants. Even so, there was not a significant emphasis on the topic (Bonger, 1943/1969) until the last quarter of the 20th century, when race and crime became a recognized specialty area of study within the field (Gabbidon, 2007; Gabbidon & Greene, 2009; Walker, Spohn, & DeLone, 2007). In fact, many criminology and criminal justice programs now either require or offer a course on race and crime as an elective.
Race has historically featured, and continues to feature, prominently in reporting on crime and justice within the United States. Incidents like the alleged rape of a Black female North Carolina Central University student by (White male) members of the Duke University Lacrosse Team in Durham, North Carolina; the Jena 6 incident in Jena, Louisiana; the Tulia, Texas, drug arrests; the Rodney King beating; the O. J. Simpson trials in the 1990s and in 2008; and more recent racial profiling incidents remind us of the race and crime nexus.
These historical and contemporary issues signaled the need for a comprehensive compilation of relevant facts and information on topics related to race and crime and the crime and justice experiences of racial/ethnic groups in the United States. Also needed was an alternative source of information other than the media that can better explain and objectively analyze complex issues related to race and crime.
The encyclopedia is designed to provide reference material and an introduction to historical and contemporary race and crime topics. It supports study, research, and instruction by presenting brief overviews and references to more in-depth presentations in other published sources. This volume will give undergraduate and graduate students, laypersons, professionals, researchers, and scholars access to information on race and crime topics that heretofore has been difficult to find in one place. Such a volume will provide users with state-of-the-art knowledge on the topic.
Content and OrganizationThe encyclopedia includes entries related to race and crime that are organized in the Reader's Guide as follows:
- Biographies
- Cases
- Concepts and Theories
- Corrections
- Courts
- Drugs
- Juvenile Justice
- Media
- Organizations
- Police
- Public Policy
- Race Riots
- Specific Populations
- Violence and Crime
Each entry includes a definition of the term and explains how it is related to race and crime. The entries also provide cross-references to other entries that likely provide additional information on the topic. Each entry closes with a Further Readings section that provides references to additional scholarly sources on the topic.
It should be noted that the encyclopedia uses a variety of terms to describe racial and ethnic minorities. For example, it is well established that the term race refers to the classification of distinctive groups. In the United States, the major racial groups are Whites (also referred to as Caucasians), African Americans (also referred to as Blacks), Native Americans (also referred to as American Indians), and Asian Americans. The term ethnicity refers to ethnic groups that are believed to be identifiable less by race and more by culture and place of origin. For example, the largest ethnic group in America is Latinos (also referred to as Hispanics). Latinos come from the Caribbean and Latin American countries. Arab Americans represent another ethnic group that is well established in the United States.
We have followed the American Psychological Association's policy of capitalizing the terms Black and White when used to refer to race/ethnicity. We have used the term Latina/o/s as the plural form in entry titles; however, in the text of entries themselves, we have used the shorter form Latinos for typographical simplicity.
It is important to pause here to remind readers that both race and ethnicity are social constructs or terms that were created to note the differences among human groups. At the moment, scientists have found that all racial and ethnic groups have the same general biological makeup, with only 1% variation among groups. As such, the classification of humans based on race and ethnicity is severely flawed. For example, how would we classify a naturalized citizen who immigrated to the United States from another country? Should we classify him or her as African American just because his or her skin is black? By doing so, we would not be adequately accounting for his or her unique experience. The point here is that not only the classification but also the perceptions that attach to the classifications are problematic. Therefore, someone dark-skinned from Africa might evoke a different response from someone dark-skinned from India. Why? Because even a social construct has the power to influence the way people are perceived. In sum, although this encyclopedia uses these terms, readers should consider the limitations and dangers of doing so.
Appendixes: Statistics on Race and CrimeMany of the entries in the encyclopedia include statistical data on race and crime. We have included two appendixes to help readers locate and understand this information.
Locating and Interpreting Statistical Data on Race and CrimeTwo programs administered by the U.S. Department of Justice are the major sources of federal data on crime, including statistical data by racial/ethnic groups: the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). Because the UCR and NCVS programs are conducted for different purposes, use different methods, and focus on somewhat different aspects of crime, the information they produce together provides a more comprehensive panorama of the nation's crime problem than either could produce alone. Appendix A provides a brief history and overview of these programs and describes the kind of information available on race and crime.
Websites with Data on Race and CrimeAppendix B contains URLs and detailed instructions on accessing statistical data from both governmental sources and various nongovernmental organizations. Users of the electronic version of the encyclopedia will be able to click on these links to go directly to the relevant websites in order to obtain the most recent data available online. This information will enable readers to explore and evaluate empirical evidence on a variety of topics related to race and crime, including the following:
- Arrests
- Contacts between police and the public
- Death penalty
- Drugs and crime
- Gang membership
- Hate crimes
- Homicide trends in the United States
- Juvenile justice
- Prison populations
- Racial profiling
- Victimization
How the Encyclopedia Was CreatedCreation of the encyclopedia involved several stages, including identifying topics, choosing headwords/entries, recruiting authors, and reviewing and editing. The preliminary list of headwords was developed by the volume editors with the assistance of Diana Axelsen, the developmental editor. Review Board members were asked to review the initial list and make revisions and suggestions via e-mail and at a meeting with the editors at the 2006 annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology. Additional headwords were suggested by contributors and as a result of emerging issues like the Jena 6 and the Supreme Court's ruling in Kennedy v. Louisiana.
The methods used for identifying authors included requests for contributors sent to listservs for the Division of People of Color and Crime and the Division of Women and Crime of the American Society of Criminology, the Minorities and Women's Section, regional organizations of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, and the Association of Doctoral Programs in Criminology and Criminal Justice. Review Board members were also asked to identify contributors and to distribute information about the encyclopedia at their institution and among their colleagues elsewhere. The 2007 Directory of Minority Criminologists was also a valuable resource for identifying contributors. Contributors also were identified during attendance at the annual meetings of the American Society of Criminology and the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences and by perusing the conference programs.
Reviewing and editing of the entries began with assigning a reviewer to read, edit, and provide feedback to the author of each entry. Entries were assigned to editors and Editorial Board members according to their expertise in criminology and criminal justice. After the initial review and editing, the entry was processed through Sage's developmental editor.
AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank the Review Board members, Marvin D. Free, Delores Jones-Brown, Ramiro Martinez, Jr., Everette B. Penn, and Vernetta D. Young, for their assistance in both locating and reviewing entries. Countless members of the American Society of Criminology, the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, and the Association of Doctoral Programs in Criminology and Criminal Justice were also instrumental in helping us secure the contributors. We are especially thankful for Hillary Potter (DPCC Listserv) and Lorenzo Boyd (Minorities and Women Listserv) for repeatedly posting our messages concerning the encyclopedia. Many of our colleagues authored entries with graduate students, providing those students with an opportunity to experience both research and publishing. We especially thank Everette Penn and Zina McGee for working with so many of their graduate students on several entries. Elycia Daniel, our managing editor, is thanked for helping us to manage numerous tasks that the project entailed. Of course, we are grateful for the knowledgeable contributors who took time away from their busy academic (and personal) lives to write entries. We have learned so much from your work!
At Sage, we want to thank Jerry Westby for suggesting that we consider doing an encyclopedia on race and crime. Jerry put us in touch with Jim Brace-Thompson, who was supportive of the project from the beginning. Along the way, his continued positive encouragement kept us going. We also thank Laura Notton and Leticia Gutierrez for their technical assistance. A special acknowledgment is reserved for Diana Axelsen, for her invaluable assistance and for keeping us motivated to complete the final stages of the project. Thanks, Diana!
Helen would like to thank her family and colleagues for inspiration during this project. I also thank Ms. Monica Freelon, Ms. Crystal Hadnott, and Ms. Lakesha Jones for their assistance. I am grateful for the privilege and experience of working with Dr. Gabbidon on this project.
Shaun would like to thank his family for putting up with him at the computer for long hours working on another book project! I also thank Dr. Greene for her leadership on this project. There is no doubt in my mind that this project would not have been completed without her devotion. Thanks, Helen! At Penn State Harrisburg, I continue to be grateful for the outstanding research support. I thank my graduate assistant Ms. Lisa Kim for her assistance with the appendixes.
andReferences(1969). Race and crime. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith. (Original work published 1943)Du Bois, W. E. B. (Ed.). (1904). Some notes on Negro crime, particularly in Georgia. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press(1949). The Negro in the United States. New York: Macmillan(2007). Criminological perspectives on race and crime. New York: RoutledgeThe presence of African American scholarship in early American criminology textbooks (1918–1960)Journal of Criminal Justice Education12301–310(2001)http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10511250100086131,(2009). Race and crime. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, &The criminal Negro: I. A sociological studyThe Arena2559–68(1901)(1911). Criminal man. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. (Original work published 1876)Community factors in Negro delinquencyJournal of Negro Education5220–227(1936)http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2292158The Negro criminal: A statistical noteAnnals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences14052–64(1928)http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000271622814000109(1942). Juvenile delinquency in urban areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, &(2007). The color of justice: Race, ethnicity, crime and justice in America. (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, , &Negro criminality in the SouthAnnals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences4974–80(1913)http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000271621304900110 -
Appendix A: Locating and Interpreting Statistical Data on Race and Crime
Most federal statistics include at least five racial categories: American Indians/Alaska Natives, Asians/ Pacific Islanders, Blacks, Hispanics, and Whites. A category for other is also available. The 2000 U.S. Census of the Population implemented several changes in racial and ethnic categories that took into consideration intraracial and intraethnic heterogeneity (Gabbidon & Greene, 2009). Now, more than 60 combinations of racial categories are available to respondents, and the Hispanic or Latino category has been revised to permit classification of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, and other Hispanic or Latino persons. The U.S. Census Bureau makes population estimates available for the world, the United States, and individual states, cities, and towns. This information can be accessed on its website: http://www.census.gov.
Unlike census data, there is considerable variation in the availability of data on racial and ethnic categories in federal crime, justice, and victimization statistics. Most crime-related data do not capture the cultural differences within racial categories and how this might impact involvement in crime, decision making by justice professionals, and within-group victimizations. Another problem in the collection of data is that there may be inaccuracies in the identifications of racial categories made by police and other justice officials. Another important issue is the time lapse between when data are collected and when they are available. Some data are available annually while other data sets only appear periodically. While limitations persist, there is a considerable amount of information available about race and ethnicity in federal (and state) crime statistics.
Most crime-related data is collected under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Justice. Since the 1930s, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has conducted the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program and publishes an annual report, Crime in the United States. The FBI is also responsible for the Hate Crime Statistics Program and the National Incident-Based Reporting Program. The Bureau of Justice Statistics provides valuable information on crime, justice, and victimization data on the Web. The data are readily available and helpful in analyzing racial/ethnic categories within compilations on the death penalty, juvenile delinquency and juvenile justice, probation/parole/incarceration, and victimization. The Bureau of Justice Statistics also publishes special reports related to race and crime that are available at the National Criminal Justice Reference Service website (http://www.ncjrs.gov). Another useful source of information on crime-related research is the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data (http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/index.html).
The two primary statistical programs designed to measure the magnitude, nature, and impact of crime in the United States are the UCR Program and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), which are described in the next section.
UCR Program and the NCVS DataThe UCR Program and the NCVS produce valuable information about aspects of the nation's crime problem. Because the UCR and NCVS programs are conducted for different purposes, use different methods, and focus on somewhat different aspects of crime, the information they produce together provides a more comprehensive panorama of the criminal justice system than either could produce alone.
Uniform Crime Reporting ProgramThe UCR Program, administered by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), began in 1929 and collects information on the following crimes reported to law enforcement authorities: murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson. Law enforcement agencies report arrest data for 21 additional crime categories.
The UCR Program compiles data from monthly law enforcement reports or individual crime incident records transmitted directly to the FBI or to centralized state agencies that then report to the FBI. The program thoroughly examines each report it receives for reasonableness, accuracy, and deviations that may indicate errors. Large variations in crime levels may indicate modified records procedures, incomplete reporting, or changes in a jurisdiction's boundaries. To identify any unusual fluctuations in an agency's crime counts, the program compares monthly reports to previous submissions of the agency and with those for similar agencies.
In 2007, law enforcement agencies active in the UCR Program represented more than 285 million U.S. inhabitants—94.6% of the total population. The UCR Program presents crime counts for the nation as a whole, as well as for regions, states, counties, cities, towns, tribal law enforcement, and colleges and universities. This permits studies among neighboring jurisdictions and among those with similar populations and other common characteristics.
The FBI annually publishes its findings in a preliminary release in the spring of the following calendar year, followed by a detailed annual report, Crime in the United States, issued in the fall. In addition to crime counts and trends, this report includes data on crimes cleared, persons arrested (age, sex, and race), law enforcement personnel (including the number of sworn officers killed or assaulted), and the characteristics of homicides (including age, sex, and race of victims and offenders; victim-offender relationships; weapons used; and circumstances surrounding the homicides). Other periodic reports are also available from the UCR Program.
The state and local law enforcement agencies participating in the UCR Program are continually converting to the more comprehensive and detailed National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS). The NIBRS provides detailed information about each criminal incident in 22 broad categories of offenses.
National Crime Victimization SurveyThe Bureau of Justice Statistics' (BJS) National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), which began in 1973, provides a detailed picture of crime incidents, victims, and trends. After a substantial period of research, the BJS completed an intensive methodological redesign of the survey in 1993. The BJS conducted the redesign to improve the questions used to uncover crime, update the survey methods, and broaden the scope of crimes measured. The redesigned survey collects detailed information on the frequency and nature of the crimes of rape, sexual assault, personal robbery, aggravated and simple assault, household burglary, theft, and motor vehicle theft. It does not measure homicide or commercial crimes (such as burglaries of stores).
Two times a year, the U.S. Census Bureau personnel interview household members in a nationally representative sample of approximately 43,000 households (about 76,000 people). Approximately 150,000 interviews of persons age 12 or older are conducted annually. Households stay in the sample for 3 years. New households rotate into the sample on an ongoing basis.
The NCVS collects information on crimes suffered by individuals and households, whether or not those crimes were reported to law enforcement. It estimates the proportion of each crime type reported to law enforcement, and it summarizes the reasons that victims give for reporting or not reporting.
The survey provides information about victims (age, sex, race, ethnicity, marital status, income, and educational level), offenders (sex, race, approximate age, and victim-offender relationship), and the crimes (time and place of occurrence, use of weapons, nature of injury, and economic consequences). Questions also cover the experiences of victims with the criminal justice system, self-protective measures used by victims, and possible substance abuse by offenders. Supplements are added periodically to the survey to obtain detailed information on topics like school crime.
The BJS published the first data from the redesigned NCVS in a BJS bulletin in June 1995. BJS publication of NCVS data includes Criminal Victimization in the United States, an annual report that covers the broad range of detailed information collected by the NCVS. The BJS publishes detailed reports on topics such as crime against women, urban crime, and gun use in crime. The National Archive of Criminal Justice Data at the University of Michigan archives the NCVS data files to enable researchers to perform independent analyses.
Comparing the UCR Program and the NCVSBecause the BJS designed the NCVS to complement the UCR Program, the two programs share many similarities. As much as their different collection methods permit, the two measure the same subset of serious crimes, defined alike. Both programs cover rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, theft, and motor vehicle theft. Rape, robbery, theft, and motor vehicle theft are defined virtually identically by both the UCR Program and the NCVS. (Although rape is defined analogously, the UCR Program measures crime against women only, and the NCVS measures it against both sexes.)
There are also significant differences between the two programs. First, the two programs were created to serve different purposes. The UCR Program's primary objective is to provide a reliable set of criminal justice statistics for law enforcement administration, operation, and management. The BJS established the NCVS to provide previously unavailable information about crime (including crime not reported to police), victims, and offenders.
Second, the two programs measure an overlapping but nonidentical set of crimes. The NCVS includes crimes both reported and not reported to law enforcement. The NCVS excludes, but the UCR Program includes, homicide, arson, commercial crimes, and crimes against children under age 12. The UCR Program captures crimes reported to law enforcement but collects only arrest data for simple assaults and sexual assaults other than forcible rape.
Third, because of methodology, the NCVS and UCR Program definitions of some crimes differ. For example, the UCR Program defines burglary as the unlawful entry or attempted entry of a structure to commit a felony or theft. The NCVS, not wanting to ask victims to ascertain offender motives, defines burglary as the entry or attempted entry of a residence by a person who had no right to be there.
Fourth, for property crimes (burglary, theft, and motor vehicle theft), the two programs calculate crime rates using different bases. The UCR Program rates for these crimes are per capita (number of crimes per 100,000 persons), whereas the NCVS rates for these crimes are per household (number of crimes per 1,000 households). Because the number of households may not grow at the same rate each year as the total population, trend data for rates of property crimes measured by the two programs may not be comparable.
Each program has unique strengths. The UCR Program provides a measure of the number of persons arrested and crimes reported to law enforcement agencies throughout the country. The UCR's Program Supplementary Homicide Reports provide the most reliable, timely data on the extent and nature of homicides in the nation. The NCVS is the primary source of information on the characteristics of criminal victimization and on the number and types of crimes not reported to law enforcement authorities. It is possible to use the UCR Program and NCVS to achieve a greater understanding of crime trends and the nature of crime in the United States. For example, changes in police procedures, shifting attitudes toward crime and police, and other societal changes can affect the extent to which people report and law enforcement agencies record crime. NCVS and UCR Program data can be used in concert to explore why trends in reported and police recorded crime may differ.
Further Readings(2009). Race and crime. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, &U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2005). Crime in the United States, 2004. Retrieved November 26, 2008, from http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_04/appendices/appendix_04.htmlAppendix B: Statistics and Race and Crime: Accessing Data Online
Instructions on accessing statistical data from both governmental and nongovernmental sources on the Web are presented here to enable readers to access the most recent information related to selected topics on race and crime, including arrests, contacts between the police and the public, the death penalty, drugs and crime, gang membership, hate crimes, homicide trends in the United States, juvenile justice, racial profiling, and victimization.
ArrestsOption 1The best source of information on race and arrests in the United States is the U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Step 1
Go to the website for United States Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation: http://www.fbi.gov
Step 2
On the left-hand column click on the link labeled Reports and Publications.
Step 3
On this new page, scroll down to On Statistics and click on Crime in the United States.
Step 4
On the Uniform Crime Reports page, scroll down to Crime in the United States and click on the year for which you want information. If there is a pop-up, click on Continue to Crime in the United States (year).
Step 5
Then, find Persons Arrested and click on Go To Arrest Tables.
Step 6
Click on Table 43 for data on total arrests and arrests for specific offenses by race for adults and juveniles.
Option 2FBI arrest data can also be accessed via the Bureau of Justice Statistics:
Step 1
Go to the website for United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs
Step 2
On the right-hand column under the heading labeled Data from other sources, find and click on the link labeled FBI's Uniform Crime Reports.
Step 3
On this new page, under Crime in the United States, click on the appropriate year. If there is a pop-up, click on Continue to Crime in the United States (year).
Step 4
Then, find and click on the heading labeled Persons Arrested, in the middle of the page.
Step 5
Scroll down and find the heading labeled Expanded arrest data. Under this heading, you will find tables for data by race.
Contacts between Police and the PublicA good source of information on race and contact with the police, including traffic stops, is the United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Step 1
Go to the website for United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/welcome.html
Step 2
Under the heading Law enforcement click on state and local.
Step 3
On this new page, under the listing of BJS Publications, scroll down until you locate Contacts Between the Police and the Public, 2005, and Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by the Police, 2002, or the most recent report available on these topics.
Step 4
When you click on a link to one of these links to findings on police and public contact for a specific year, you will be able to open an Adobe Acrobat file (PDF) providing statistics on various characteristics (including race) of those who have been stopped by the police in their vehicle or had contact with the police under other circumstances.
Death PenaltyOption 1Step 1
Go to the Death Penalty Information Center (DPIC) website: http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org
Step 2
On the left-hand side of the page, find the heading Issues.
Step 3
Under Issues find and click on Race.
After clicking Race you will find multiple links to issues related to race and the death penalty. Click on them to find charts and statistics.
Option 2Step 1
Go to the website for United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs
Step 2
In the Statistics About box, find the heading Corrections
Step 3
Under the heading Corrections, find and click on the link labeled Capital Punishment.
Drugs and CrimeThe Bureau of Justice Statistics has a large amount of information on drugs and crime.
Option 1Locate Table 43 using the procedure described in Option 1 for Arrests. This table contains data on arrests for drug abuse violations by race.
Option 2For information on drugs and prisoners:
Step 1
Go to the website for United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs
Step 2
In the Statistics About box, find the heading Corrections.
Step 3
Under the heading Corrections, find and click on the link labeled Prisons.
Step 4
On this new page, under BJS Publications, scroll down to Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004.
Step 5
Click on the Acrobat file. This document contains data on drug use and dependence by race.
Option 3: Sentencing for Federal Drug OffensesFollowing the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in U.S. v. Booker, 543 U.S. 160 (2005), judges were given greater latitude in sentencing for drug offenses. The U.S. Sentencing Commission provides data on the length of sentences that have been imposed in federal court for such offenses since the 2005 ruling.
Step 1
Go to the Sentencing Commission website: http://www.ussc.gov/linktojp.htm
Step 2
Click on Data on Retroactive Application of Crack Cocaine Amendment and go to Table 5.
Gang MembershipStep 1
Go to the website for Institute for Intergovernmental Research: http://www.iir.com
Step 2
Near the top of the page, find and scroll the mouse over the square labeled Gangs. You will find that three additional links drop down. Find and click on the drop-down link labeled National Youth Gang Center.
Step 3
On the right-hand column under the heading Publications find and click on the link labeled National Youth Gang Survey Analysis.
Step 4
Scroll down toward the bottom of this new page and find and click on the heading labeled Demographics.
Step 5
Toward the bottom of this new page, you will find charts for Race/Ethnicity of Gang Members and Race/Ethnicity of Gang Members by Area Type.
Hate CrimesOption 1Step 1
Go to the website for the Federal Bureau of Investigation: http://www.fbi.gov
Step 2
On the left-hand column find and click on Reports &c Publications.
Step 3
Scroll all the way down to the bottom and under the heading On Statistics, find and click on Uniform Crime Reports: Hate Crime Statistics, then click on a specific year. On the next screen, you will find data on incidents and offenses, victims, offenders, and location type (where the offense occurred).
Option 2Step 1
Go to the website for the Southern Poverty Law Center: http://www.splcenter.org
Step 2
On the left-hand column find and click on Hate Incidents.
Step 3
Click on the state of interest.
Homicide Trends in the United StatesStep 1
Go to the website for United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs
Step 2
In the Statistics About box, find and click on the heading Special Topics.
Step 3
Under Special Topics find and click on the link labeled Homicide Trends.
Step 4
On the right side of the page you will see Contents. Find and click on the subheading labeled Race (which is under the heading Demographic trends by).
Juvenile JusticeStep 1
Go to the website for the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention: http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org
Step 2
In the left-hand column, find and click on the link for Statistics.
Step 3
In the left-hand column find and click on the link for Juvenile Population Characteristics.
Step 4
Under the heading Juvenile Population Characteristics on this new page, find and click on the link labeled Related FAQs.
Step 5
Under the heading Juvenile Population, find the subheading Within States, how do juvenile populations vary by race? and click on the link labeled Answer.
Prison PopulationsOption 1Step 1
Go to the website for United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs
Step 2
In the Statistics About box, find the heading Corrections.
Step 3
Under the heading Corrections, find and click on the link labeled Prisons.
Step 4
For the most recent data on prison inmates, scroll down to Prison Inmates at Midyear 2007 or the most recent report available.
Scroll down and click on Acrobat File.
See Tables 9, 10, and 11 for data by race/ethnicity.
Option 2Step 1
Go to the website for the Sentencing Project: http://www.sentencingproject.org
Step 2
Click on Statistics by State and then put your cursor over the state for which you want information (but don't click on the state). Data on rates of incarceration and felony disenfranchisement will appear to the right of the map.
Racial ProfilingStep 1
Go to the website for Ethnic Majority: http://www.ethnicmajority.com
Step 2
In the middle of the page, find and click on the square link for Civil Rights.
Step 3
On the right-hand column under the heading Topics, find and click on the link labeled Racial Profiling.
On the right-hand column of this new page, you will find multiple links to information on racial profiling.
VictimizationOption 1Step 1
Go to the website for U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs
Step 2
In the Statistics About box, find the heading Crime & Victims and click on it.
Step 3
Under the heading Pages with additional information, statistics, and publications about, find Criminal Victimization and click on it. Here you will find Summary findings for the most recent year available.
Option 2To find tables on criminal victimization in the United States along with tables for other years:
Step 1
Go to the website for U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs
Step 2
In the Statistics About box, find the heading Crime&cVictims and click on it.
Step 3
On the new page, scroll all the way to the bottom of the screen to find the heading Selected Statistics. Under this head, find and click on Criminal Victimization in the United States—Statistical Tables.
Under the heading Download you are given 3 options to view statistics (or you can just scroll down through the page):
One table at a time
Complete set of tables
Sections of tables
Find the year for which you want to see statistics and click on the Acrobat file link to view.
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