Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society
Encyclopedias
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Copyright
Copyright © 2008 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Encyclopedia of race, ethnicity, and society/edited by Richard T. Schaefer.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4129-2694-2 (cloth)
1. Racism—Encyclopedias. 2. Race relations—Encyclopedias. 3. Ethnicity—Encyclopedias. I. Schaefer, Richard T.
HT1521.E63 2008
305.8003—dc22
2007042741
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
08 09 10 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Publisher: Rolf A. Janke
Acquisitions Editor: Jerry Westby
Developmental Editor: Diana E. Axelsen
Reference Systems Manager: Leticia Gutierrez
Production Editor: Kate Schroeder
Copy Editors: Carla Freeman, Robin Gold, D. J. Peck
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreaders: Scott Oney, Penny Sippel, Dennis Webb
Indexer: Julie Grayson
Cover Designer: Candice Harman
Marketing Manager: Amberlyn Erzinger
Editorial Board
General EditorRichard T. Schaefer, Department of Sociology, DePaul University, Chicago
Associate EditorShu-Ju Ada Cheng, Department of Sociology, DePaul University, Chicago
Assistant EditorKiljoong Kim, John J. Egan Urban Center, DePaul University, Chicago
List of Entries
- Abolitionism: The Movement
- Abolitionism: The People
- Abortion
- Acculturation
- Adoption
- Affirmative Action in Education
- Affirmative Action in the Workplace
- Afghan Americans
- African Americans
- African Americans, Migration of
- African American Studies
- African American Women and Work
- Africans in the United States
- Afrocentricity
- Aging
- Alamo, The
- Alaskan Natives, Legislation Concerning
- Albanian Americans
- Aleuts
- Alien Land Acts
- American Apartheid
- American Dilemma, An
- American Indian Movement
- American Indians. See
- Americanization
- American Jewish Committee
- Americans with Disabilities Act
- Amish
- Anti-Defamation League
- Antiracist Education
- Anti-Semitism
- Apartheid
- Apartheid, Laws
- Arab Americans
- Argentina
- Armenian Americans
- Asian Americans
- Asian Americans, New York City
- Asian American Studies
- Asian American Studies, Mixed-Heritage
- ASPIRA
- Assimilation
- Assyrian Americans
- Asylum
- Australia
- Australia, Indigenous People
- Authoritarian Personality
- Aztlán
- Back to Africa Movement
- Baldwin, James
- Balkans
- Bangladeshi Americans
- Barrio
- Belgian Americans
- Belize
- Bell Curve, The
- Bilingual Education
- Biomedicine, African Americans and
- Birth of a Nation, The
- Black Bourgeoisie
- Black Cinema
- Black Conservatives
- Black Elk
- Black Enterprise
- Blackfeet
- Black Intellectuals
- Black-Jewish Relations. See
- Black Marxism. See
- Black Metropolis
- Black Nationalism
- Black Panther Party
- Black Power
- Blockbusting
- Blood Quantum
- Boas, Franz
- “Boat People”
- Body Image
- Borderlands
- Border Patrol
- Bosnian Americans
- Boycott
- Bracero Program
- Brain Drain
- Brazil
- Brazilian Americans
- Britain's Irish
- Brown Berets
- Brown v. Board of Education
- Bulgarian Americans
- Burakumin
- Bureau of Indian Affairs
- Burmese Americans. See
- Cambodian Americans
- Canada
- Canada, Aboriginal Women
- Canada, First Nations
- Canadian Americans
- Cape Verde
- Caribbean
- Caribbean Americans
- Carmichael, Stokely
- Caste
- Census, U.S.
- Central Americans in the United States
- Chávez, César
- Cherokee
- Cheyenne
- Chicago School of Race Relations
- Chicano Movement
- Child Development
- Chin, Vincent
- China
- Chinatowns
- Chinese Americans
- Chinese Exclusion Act
- Choctaw
- Cisneros v. Corpus Christi School District
- Citizenship
- Civil Disobedience
- Civil Religion
- Civil Rights Movement
- Civil Rights Movement, Women and
- Code of the Street
- Collins, Patricia Hill
- Colombia
- Colonialism
- Colonias
- Color Blindness
- Color Line
- Community Cohesion
- Community Empowerment
- Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
- Contact Hypothesis
- Cosmopolitanism
- Creole
- Crime and Race
- Criminal Processing
- Critical Race Theory
- Croatian Americans
- Cross-Frontier Contacts
- Crown Heights, Brooklyn
- Cuba
- Cuba: Migration and Demography
- Cuban Americans
- Cultural Capital
- Cultural Relativism
- Culture of Poverty
- Cypriot Americans
- Czech Americans
- Danish Americans
- Dawes Act of 1887
- Death Penalty
- Declining Significance of Race, The
- Deficit Model of Ethnicity
- Deloria, Vine, Jr.
- Desi
- Deviance and Race
- Diaspora
- Digital Divide
- Dillingham Flaw
- Discrimination
- Discrimination, Environmental Hazards
- Discrimination, Measuring
- Discrimination in Housing
- Domestic Violence
- Domestic Work
- Dominican Americans
- Dominican Republic
- Double Consciousness
- Douglass, Frederick
- Drake, St. Clair
- Dred Scott v. Sandford
- Drug Use
- Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt
- Dutch Americans
- East Harlem
- Educational Performance and Attainment
- Educational Stratification
- Egyptian Americans
- Emancipation Proclamation
- English Americans. See
- English Immersion
- Environmental Justice
- Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
- Estonian Americans
- Ethnic Conflict
- Ethnic Enclave, Economic Impact of
- Ethnic Group
- Ethnicity, Negotiating
- Ethnic Succession
- Ethnocentrism
- Ethnonational Minorities
- Ethnoviolence
- Eugenics
- Europe
- Familism
- Family
- Fanon, Frantz
- Father Divine Peace Mission Movement
- Feminism
- Feminism, Black
- Feminism, Latina
- Filipino Americans
- Film, Latino
- Finnish Americans
- Foreign Students
- France
- Fraternities and Sororities
- Frazier, E. Franklin
- French Americans
- FUBU Company
- Gaming, Native American
- Gangs
- Gautreaux Decision
- Gender and Race, Intersection of
- Gender Identity. See
- Genocide
- Gentlemen's Agreement (1907–1908)
- Gentrification
- Georgian Americans
- German Americans
- Gerrymandering
- Ghetto
- Glass Ceiling
- Globalization
- Global Perspective
- Greek Americans
- Grutter v. Bollinger
- Guatemalan Americans
- Guest Workers
- Hafu
- Haiti
- Haitian Americans
- Haitian and Cuban Immigration: A Comparison
- Haole
- Hapa
- Harlem
- Harlem Renaissance
- Hate Crimes
- Hate Crimes in Canada
- Hawai'i, Race in
- Hawaiians
- Head Start and Immigrants
- Health, Immigrant
- Health Disparities
- Hernandez v. Texas
- Higher Education
- Higher Education: Racial Battle Fatigue
- Hip-Hop
- Hip-Hop and Rap, Women and
- Hispanics
- Hispanic Versus Latino
- HIV/AIDS
- Hmong Americans
- Holocaust
- Holocaust Deniers and Revisionists
- Homelessness
- Homicide
- Honduran Americans
- Hong Kong
- hooks, bell
- Hopi
- Hourglass Economy
- Housing Audits
- Huerta, Dolores
- Hull House School of Race Relations
- Hungarian Americans
- Hurricane Katrina
- Hutterites
- Icelandic Americans
- Identity Politics
- Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996
- Immigrant Communities
- Immigration, Economic Impact of
- Immigration, U.S.
- Immigration and Gender
- Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
- Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS)
- Immigration and Race
- Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
- Incarcerated Parents
- India
- Indian Americans
- Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978
- Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988
- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990
- Indonesian Americans
- Informal Economy
- Institutional Discrimination
- Integration. See
- Intelligence Tests
- Intercultural Communication
- Intergroup Relations, Surveying
- Intermarriage
- Internal Colonialism
- Internalized Racism
- International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
- Internment Camps
- Interracial Friendships
- Invisible Man
- Iranian Americans
- Iraqi Americans
- Ireland
- Irish Americans
- Islamophobia
- Issei
- Italian Americans
- Jackson, Jesse, Sr.
- Jamaica
- Jamaican Americans
- Japan
- Japanese American Citizens League
- Japanese Americans
- Jewish Americans
- Jewish-Black Relations: A Historical Perspective
- Jewish-Black Relations: The Contemporary Period
- Jewry, Black American
- Jim Crow
- Johnson, Charles S.
- Jordanian Americans
- Juvenile Justice
- Kennewick Man
- Kenya
- King, Martin Luther, Jr.
- Kinship
- Kitano, Harry H. L.
- Korean Americans
- Ku Klux Klan
- Kurdish Americans
- Kwanzaa
- Labeling
- Labor Market Segmentation
- Labor Unions
- Laotian Americans
- La Raza
- La Raza Unida Party
- Latin America, Indigenous People
- Latina/o Studies
- Latvian Americans
- Lebanese Americans
- Lee, Spike
- Leisure
- Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender
- Life Expectancy
- Lincoln, Abraham
- Lithuanian Americans
- London Bombings (July 7, 2005)
- Loving v. Virginia
- Lynching
- Machismo
- Malcolm X
- Mandela, Nelson
- Maquiladoras
- Marginalization
- “Marielitos”
- Marshall, Thurgood
- Marxism and Racism
- McCarran-Walter Act of 1952
- Media and Race
- Medical Experimentation
- Melting Pot
- Mennonites
- Menominee
- Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF)
- Mexican Americans
- Mexico
- Military and Race
- Minority/Majority
- Minority Rights
- Model Minority
- Mormons, Race and
- Multicultural Education
- Multicultural Social Movements
- Multiracial Identity
- Muslim Americans
- Muslims in Canada
- Muslims in Europe
- Myanmarese Americans
- National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
- National Congress of American Indians
- National Council of La Raza
- National Indian Youth Council
- National Origins System
- National Rainbow Coalition
- National Urban League
- Nation of Islam
- Native American Education
- Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990
- Native American Health Care
- Native American Identity
- Native American Identity, Legal Background
- Native Americans
- Native Americans, Environment and
- Nativism
- Navajo
- Negro League Baseball
- Newton, Huey
- Nicaraguan Americans
- Nigeria
- Nigerian Americans
- Nikkeijin
- Nisei
- Northern Ireland, Racism in
- Norwegian Americans
- Ojibwa
- One-Drop Rule
- Operation Bootstrap
- Operation PUSH
- Orientalism
- Pachucos/Pachucas
- Pacific Islanders
- Pakistani Americans
- Palestinian Americans
- Panamanian Americans
- Pan-Asian Identity
- Panethnic Identity
- Pan-Indianism
- Parenting
- Park, Robert E.
- Parks, Rosa
- PATRIOT Act of 2001
- Peltier, Leonard
- Peoplehood
- People of Color
- Peru
- Peruvian Americans
- Peyote
- Pipeline
- Plessy v. Ferguson
- Pluralism
- Police
- Polish Americans
- Political Economy
- Popular Culture, Racism and
- Portuguese Americans
- Prejudice
- Prisons
- Privilege
- Proposition 187
- Public Housing
- Pueblos
- Puerto Rican Americans
- Puerto Rican Armed Forces of National Liberation (FALN)
- Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund
- Puerto Rico
- Race
- Race, Comparative Perspectives
- Race, Declining Significance of. See
- Race, Social Construction of
- Race, UNESCO Statements on
- Racetalk
- Racial Formation
- Racial Identity
- Racial Identity Development
- Racialization
- Racial Profiling
- Racism
- Racism, Aversive
- Racism, Cultural
- Racism, Types of
- Racism, Unintentional
- Rainbow Coalition. See
- Rap: The Genre
- Rap: The Movement
- Redlining
- Red Power
- Refugees
- Religion
- Religion, African Americans
- Religion, Minority
- Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993
- Religious Movements, New
- Remittances
- Reparations, Slavery
- Repatriation of Mexican Americans
- Resegregation
- Reservation System
- Restrictive Covenants
- Return Migration
- Reverse Discrimination
- Rites of Passage
- Robbers Cave Experiment
- Robinson, Cedric
- Robinson, Jackie
- Roma
- Roman Catholics
- Romanian Americans
- Russia
- Sacred Sites, Native American
- Sacred Versus Secular
- Salvadoran Americans
- Sami
- Samoan Americans
- Samora, Julian
- San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez
- Sand Creek Massacre
- Sansei
- Santería
- Scapegoats
- Schmiedeleut
- School Desegregation
- School Desegregation, Attitudes Concerning
- Science Faculties, Women of Color on
- Scottish Americans. See
- Segregation
- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- Separate but Equal
- Serbian Americans
- Sexual Harassment
- Sexuality
- Sicilian Americans
- Singapore
- Sioux
- Slavery
- Slovak Americans
- Slovene Americans
- Social Capital
- Social Darwinism
- Social Distance
- Social Inequality
- Social Mobility
- Social Support
- Social Work
- South Africa, Republic of
- South Americans in the United States
- Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
- Sovereignty, Native American
- Spanglish
- Spanish Americans
- Split Labor Market
- Sri Lankan Americans
- Stereotypes
- Stereotype Threat
- Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
- Sundown Towns
- Swedish Americans
- Symbolic Ethnicity
- Symbolic Religiosity
- Syrian Americans
- Taiwan
- Talented Tenth
- Terrorism
- Testing
- Thai Americans
- Third-Generation Principle
- Thorpe, Jim
- Tibetan Americans
- Title IX
- Tlingit
- Tongan Americans
- Tracking
- Trail of Broken Treaties
- Transnational People
- Transracial Adoption
- Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
- Trinidad
- Truth, Sojourner
- Tubman, Harriet
- Turkey
- Turkish Americans
- Ugandan Americans
- Ukrainian Americans
- Underclass
- United Kingdom
- United Kingdom, Immigrants and Their Descendants in the United States
- United States v. Fordice
- Urban League. See
- Urban Legends
- Urban Riots
- “Us and Them”
- U.S. Census. See
- Veil
- Victim Discounting
- Victimization
- Vietnamese Americans
- Voting Rights
- Washington, Booker T.
- Washington, Harold
- WASP
- Water Rights
- Wealth Distribution
- “Welfare Queen”
- Welfare Reform
- Wells-Barnett, Ida B.
- Welsh Americans. See
- West Indian Americans
- “Wetbacks”
- White Flight
- Whiteness
- Whiteness, Measuring
- Whiteness and Masculinity
- White Privilege
- White Racism
- White Supremacy Movement
- Williams, Fannie Barrier
- Wilson, William Julius
- Wounded Knee (1890 and 1973)
- Xenophobia
- Young Lords
- Zapatista Rebellion
- Zimbabwe
- Zionism
- Zoot Suit Riots
List of Images
- Abolitionism: The People: Harpers Ferry insurrection (photo) 4
- Abortion: Table 1, Estimated Abortion Rate by Poverty Status, According to Race and Ethnicity 7
- Adoption: Family with five adopted, Russian-born children (photo) 10
- Afghanistan (map) 19
- African Americans: Figure 1, Estimated Percent of Blacks in the United States 27
- African American Women and Work: African American women sorting tobacco (photo) 36
- Africans in the United States: Senegalese woman in New York (photo) 38
- Albania (map) 47
- Aleutian Islands (map) 50
- Aleuts: Aleutian child, 1938 (photo) 51
- American Apartheid: Public housing in the Bedford Stuyvesant area of Brooklyn (photo) 55
- Anti-Semitism:The Eternal Jew poster (photo) 77
- Argentina (map) 87
- Armenia (map) 89
- Asian Americans: Figure 1, Estimated Percent of Asians in the United States 95
- Assyria (map) 108
- Australia, Indigenous People: June Smith and her work at a Sydney art gallery (photo) 115
- Balkans (map) 129
- Bangladesh (map) 132
- Barrio: Mariachis in East Los Angeles, California (photo) 134
- Belgium (map) 136
- Belize (map) 138
- Birth of a Nation, The: Scene from The Birth of a Nation (photo) 150
- Black Conservatives: U.S. Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas (photo) 157
- Black Enterprise: Figure 1, Proportion of Employed Black and White College Graduates in Managerial Jobs 162
- Figure 2, Percentage of People Over 24 Who Have Completed College, by Race 163
- Border Patrol: U.S. border with Mexico (photo) 193
- Bosnia-Herzegovina (map) 195
- Brazil (map) 200
- Brazilian men practicing capoeira on the beachfront (photo) 201
- Britain's Irish: Figure 1, Irish-born Recorded in Great Britain 207
- Bulgaria (map) 213
- Cambodia (map) 221
- Canada, First Nations: A Haida gift offering to the Tlingit (photo) 231
- Cape Verde (map) 235
- Caribbean Islands (map) 237
- Caste: Hindu children of high caste, Bombay, India (photo) 247
- Central America (map) 252
- Central Americans in the United States: Table 1, Central American Population in the United States 252
- Chávez, César: César Chávez and Coretta Scott King (photo) 256
- Cheyenne: Great Omaha powwow dance of the Cheyenne in Montana (photo) 264
- Child Development: African American grandmother and grandchildren (photo) 275
- China (map) 278
- Chinatowns: Chinese New Year Parade (photo) 282
- Civil Religion: Pledging allegiance to the flag (photo) 303
- Civil Rights Movement: Civil rights march (photo) 305
- Colombia (map) 316
- Contact Hypothesis: Office relations (photo) 330
- Croatia (map) 347
- Cuba (map) 352
- Cuban Americans: Cuban immigrants (photo) 357
- Cyprus (map) 365
- Czech Republic (map) 367
- Danish Americans: Danish Lutheran church, Evan, Minnesota (photo) 370
- Deficit Model of Ethnicity: Cuban exile in Miami (photo) 379
- Denmark (map) 369
- Discrimination: Table 1, Median Income by Race and Gender 393
- Dominican Americans: Dominican Day parade (photo) 409
- Dominican Republic (map) 410
- Douglass, Frederick (photo) 414
- Dred Scott v. Sandford: General parody of the 1860 presidential contest (cartoon) 417
- Drug Use: Table 1, Percentage of Persons Using Drugs in the Past 30 Days, by Age and Race 421
- Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt (photo) 423
- Educational Performance and Attainment: Table 1, Educational Performance and Attainment by Race and Ethnicity 433
- Egypt (map) 438
- El Salvador (map) 1185
- English Immersion: Arab American girl reading (photo) 440
- Estonia (map) 448
- Ethnic Enclaves: Festival in Little Italy (photo) 454
- Eugenics: Buchenwald concentration camp (photo) 472
- Father Divine Peace Movement: Father Divine (photo) 484
- Filipino Americans: Filipino American couple (photo) 494
- Finland (map) 500
- France (map) 506
- Fraternities and Sororities: Sorority members (photo) 510
- Gaming, Native American: Gamblers in Native American casino (photo) 520
- Gentrification: Construction in Harlem (photo) 536
- Georgia (map) 537
- German Americans: German emigrants (engraving) 541
- Germany (map) 540
- Glass Ceiling: Latina executive (photo) 549
- Greece (map) 559
- Guatemala (map) 564
- Haiti (map) 571
- Harlem Renaissance: Langston Hughes (photo) 587
- Hawai'i (map) 599
- Hawai'i, Race in: Table 1, Most Common Racial/Ethnic Groups in Hawai'i 597
- Table 2, Summary Statistics Based on Selected Socioeconomic Indicators by Group 598
- Hawaiians: Figure 1, Native Hawaiian Populations Before and After Western Contact 600
- Higher Education: Fisk University students (photo) 613
- Higher Education: Racial Battle Fatigue: Figure 1, Causes and Stress Reactions to Racial Battle Fatigue 617
- Hispanics: Figure 1, Estimated Percent of Latinos/Hispanics in the United States 626
- Homelessness: Homeless person (photo) 642
- Honduras (map) 647
- Hong Kong (map) 648
- Hungary (map) 662
- Hurricane Katrina: Hurricane Katrina victims (photo) 665
- Iceland (map) 673
- Immigration: Figure 1, Number of New Lawful Permanent Residents 687
- Figure 2, Legal Status of the U.S. Foreign-Born Population 690
- Immigration Reform and Control Act 1986: Illegal immigrants (photo) 702
- India (map) 707
- Indian Americans: Indian American woman (photo) 712
- Indonesia (map) 721
- Intermarriage: Interracial couple with their daughter (photo) 737
- Internment camps: Schoolchildren at Manzanar (photo) 745
- Japanese Americans Fred Korematsu, Minoru Yasui, and Gordon Hirabayashi, at a press conference on January 19, 1983 (photo) 746
- Iran (map) 752
- Iraq (map) 754
- Ireland (map) 755
- Irish Americans: Immigration cartoon 758
- Table 1, Immigration From Ireland to the United States 759
- Italian Americans: Italian neighborhood market (photo) 768
- Italy (map) 767
- Jamaica (map) 775
- Jamaican Americans: Harry Belafonte (photo) 776
- Japan (map) 779
- Kenya (map) 803
- King, Martin Luther, Jr. (photo) 806
- Korea, North and South (map) 812
- Ku Klux Klan: Ku Klux Klan rally (photo) 815
- Laos (map) 827
- Latin America, Indigenous People: Aztec Indian children in Mexico (photo) 834
- Latvia (map) 839
- Lebanon (map) 840
- Lee, Spike: Table 1, Chronology of Films by Spike Lee 842
- Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender: Gay rights rally (photo) 847
- Life Expectancy: Figure 1, Life Expectancy at Birth, by Race and Sex 850
- Figure 2, Infant Mortality Rates by Race and Hispanic Origin 851
- Table 1, Ten Leading Causes of Death Among Non-Hispanic Blacks and Non-Hispanic Whites 849
- Lithuania (map) 854
- Loving v. Virginia: Mildred and Richard Loving (photo) 858
- Malcolm X (photo) 865
- Marshall, Thurgood: Official portrait of the 1976 U.S. Supreme Court: Justice Thurgood Marshall (photo) 875
- Medical Experimentation: Tuskegee Syphilis Study (photo) 884
- Mexican Americans: Immigration reform demonstration (photo) 893
- Mexico (map) 898
- Myanmar (map) 929
- Native American Education: Carlisle Indian School physical education class (photo) 945
- Native Americans: Figure 1, American Indian and Alaska Native Household Population by State 965
- Table 1, American Indian and Alaska Native Household Population by Tribal Group 960
- Navajo: Three Navajo women weaving (photo) 971
- Negro League Baseball: Homestead Grays (photo) 973
- The Netherlands (map) 427
- Nicaragua (map) 978
- Nigeria (map) 980
- Norway (map) 991
- Ojibwa: Ojibwa Indian family in a canoe (photo) 996
- One-Drop Rule: Table 1, Percent Reporting Two or More Races by Specified Race 999
- Pacific Islanders: Pacific Island census workers taking a break (photo) 1009
- Table 1, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Population 1007
- Pacific Islands (map) 1007
- Pakistan (map) 1010
- Panama (map) 1016
- Parks, Rosa (photo) 1029
- Peru (map) 1040
- Philippines (map) 493
- Poland (map) 1056
- Polish Americans: Polish family working in the fields near Baltimore, Maryland (photo) 1057
- Portugal (map) 1063
- Puerto Rico (map) 1086
- Workers hoeing a tobacco slope in Puerto Rico (photo) 1087
- Racial Profiling: Table 1, Race Differences in Perceptions of Profiling 1112
- Red Power: Sioux tribesmen on Alcatraz (photo) 1130
- Religion, African Americans: Mass at an African American Catholic Church on the South Side of Chicago (photo) 1137
- Roman Catholics: Consecration of St. Patrick's Cathedral (photo) 1171
- Romania (map) 1173
- Russia (map) 1175
- Samoa (map) 1189
- Scapegoats: Men in a Chinese lodging house in San Francisco smoking opium (photo) 1202
- School Desegregation (photo) 1205
- Segregation: Drinking fountain on the county courthouse lawn in Halifax, North Carolina (photo) 1213
- Serbia (map) 1222
- Sicily (map) 1227
- Singapore (map) 1228
- Sioux: Sioux at the White House (sketch) 1232
- Slovakia (map) 1238
- Slovene Americans: Figure 1, Most Important Settlements of Slovene Americans 1243
- Slovenia (map) 1241
- Social Support: Three-generation Asian American family having dinner (photo) 1256
- South Africa, Republic of (map) 1261
- South Americans in the United States: Table 1, South American Immigration to the United States 1264
- Table 2, Characteristics of the Foreign-Born Population From Select Latin American Countries 1266
- Spain (map) 1273
- Sri Lanka (map) 1276
- Sundown Towns: Figure 1, Sundown Counties in Indiana 1284
- Sweden (map) 1286
- Swedish Americans: Bishop Hill Colony (photo) 1287
- Syria (map) 1291
- Taiwan (map) 1293
- Terrorism: Airport security (photo) 1298
- Thai Americans: Ritual of paying respect to the teacher at a Thai American Buddhist temple (photo) 1302
- Thailand (map) 1301
- Thorpe, Jim (photo) 1305
- Title IX: Women's ice hockey game (photo) 1309
- Tlingit: Kaw-Claa (photo) 1311
- A new chief (photo) 1312
- Tonga (map) 1314
- Trinidad (map) 1326
- Table 1, Distribution of the Population by Race/Ethnicity in Trinidad 1328
- Truth, Sojourner (photo) 1329
- Turkey (map) 1334
- Uganda (map) 1339
- Ukraine (map) 1341
- United Kingdom (map) 1347
- Queen Elizabeth II (photo) 1348
- Vietnam (map) 1366
- Vietnamese Americans (photo) 1367
- Wells-Barnett, Ida: Lynching caught on camera (photo) 1389
- West Indies (map) 1391
- White Supremacy Movement: George Lincoln Rockwell (photo) 1409
- Zimbabwe (map) 1425
Reader's Guide
This list is provided to assist readers in locating entries on related topics. Some entry titles appear in more than one category.
- Biographies
- Baldwin, James
- Black Elk
- Boas, Franz
- Carmichael, Stokely
- Chávez, César
- Chin, Vincent
- Collins, Patricia Hill
- Deloria, Vine, Sr.
- Douglass, Frederick
- Drake, St. Clair
- Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt
- Fanon, Frantz
- Frazier, E. Franklin
- hooks, bell
- Huerta, Dolores
- Jackson, Jesse, Jr.
- Johnson, Charles S.
- King, Martin Luther, Jr.
- Kitano, Harry H. L.
- Lee, Spike
- Lincoln, Abraham
- Malcolm X
- Mandela, Nelson
- Marshall, Thurgood
- Newton, Huey
- Park, Robert E.
- Parks, Rosa
- Peltier, Leonard
- Robinson, Cedric
- Robinson, Jackie
- Samora, Julian
- Thorpe, Jim
- Truth, Sojourner
- Tubman, Harriet
- Washington, Booker T.
- Washington, Harold
- Wells-Barnett, Ida B.
- Williams, Fannie Barrier
- Wilson, William Julius
- Community and Urban Issues
- American Apartheid
- Apartheid
- Asian Americans, New York City
- Barrio
- Black Metropolis
- Blockbusting
- Chicago School of Race Relations
- Chinatowns
- Code of the Street
- Colonialism
- Colonias
- Community Cohesion
- Community Empowerment
- Crown Heights, Brooklyn
- Culture of Poverty
- Discrimination in Housing
- East Harlem
- Ethnic Enclave, Economic Impact of
- Ethnic Succession
- Gangs
- Gautreaux Decision
- Gentrification
- Ghetto
- Harlem
- Homelessness
- Housing Audits
- Hull House School of Race Relations
- Hurricane Katrina
- National Urban League
- Public Housing
- Redlining
- Resegregation
- School Desegregation
- Segregation
- Sundown Towns
- Urban Riots
- White Flight
- Zoot Suit Riots
- Concepts and Theories
- Acculturation
- Afrocentricity
- Americanization
- Anti-Semitism
- Assimilation
- Asylum
- Authoritarian Personality
- Aztlán
- Barrio
- Black Bourgeoisie
- Black Nationalism
- Black Power
- Blockbusting
- Blood Quantum
- “Boat People”
- Body Image
- Boycott
- Brain Drain
- Caste
- Chinatowns
- Citizenship
- Civil Disobedience
- Civil Religion
- Code of the Street
- Colonialism
- Colonias
- Color Blindness
- Color Line
- Community Cohesion
- Community Empowerment
- Contact Hypothesis
- Cosmopolitanism
- Critical Race Theory
- Cultural Capital
- Cultural Relativism
- Culture of Poverty
- Deficit Model of Ethnicity
- Desi
- Diaspora
- Digital Divide
- Dillingham Flaw
- Double Consciousness
- Environmental Justice
- Ethnic Enclave, Economic Impact of
- Ethnic Group
- Ethnicity, Negotiating
- Ethnic Succession
- Ethnocentrism
- Ethnonational Minorities
- Ethnoviolence
- Eugenics
- Familism
- Feminism
- Feminism, Black
- Feminism, Latina
- Genocide
- Gentrification
- Gerrymandering
- Ghetto
- Glass Ceiling
- Globalization
- Guest Workers
- Hafu
- Hapa
- Hate Crimes
- Hate Crimes in Canada
- Higher Education: Racial Battle Fatigue
- Hispanic Versus Latino
- Holocaust
- Holocaust Deniers and Revisionists
- Homelessness
- Hourglass Economy
- Housing Audits
- Identity Politics
- Informal Economy
- Intercultural Communication
- Internal Colonialism
- Internalized Racism
- Internment Camps
- Invisible Man
- Islamophobia
- Jim Crow
- Kinship
- Kwanzaa
- Labeling
- Labor Market Segmentation
- La Raza
- Machismo
- Marginalization
- “Marielitos”
- Marxism and Racism
- Melting Pot
- Minority/Majority
- Model Minority
- Multiracial Identity
- Native American Identity
- Nativism
- Nikkeijin
- Nisei
- One-Drop Rule
- Orientalism
- Pan-Asian Identity
- Panethnic Identity
- Pan-Indianism
- Peoplehood
- People of Color
- Pipeline
- Pluralism
- Political Economy
- Privilege
- Race
- Race, Social Construction of
- Racetalk
- Racial Formation
- Racial Identity
- Racial Identity Development
- Racialization
- Racial Profiling
- Racism
- Racism, Aversive
- Racism, Cultural
- Racism, Unintentional
- Redlining
- Red Power
- Refugees
- Remittances
- Resegregation
- Restrictive Covenants
- Return Migration
- Reverse Discrimination
- Rites of Passage
- Sacred Versus Secular
- Sansei
- Scapegoats
- Segregation
- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- Separate but Equal
- Sexual Harassment
- Social Capital
- Social Darwinism
- Social Distance
- Sovereignty, Native American
- Spanglish
- Split Labor Market
- Stereotypes
- Stereotype Threat
- Sundown Towns
- Symbolic Ethnicity
- Symbolic Religiosity
- Talented Tenth
- Third-Generation Principle
- Tracking
- Transnational People
- Underclass
- Urban Legends
- “Us and Them”
- Veil
- Victim Discounting
- Victimization
- WASP
- “Welfare Queen”
- “Wetbacks”
- White Flight
- Whiteness
- White Privilege
- White Racism
- Xenophobia
- Criminal Justice
- Apartheid, Laws
- Crime and Race
- Criminal Processing
- Death Penalty
- Deviance and Race
- Drug Use
- Gangs
- Hate Crimes
- Hate Crimes, Canada
- Homicide
- Incarcerated Parents
- Internment Camps
- Jim Crow
- Juvenile Justice
- Labeling
- Lynching
- Pachucos/Pachucas
- PATRIOT Act of 2001
- Police
- Prisons
- Racial Profiling
- Victim Discounting
- Victimization
- Economics and Stratification
- Affirmative Action in the Workplace
- Alien Land Acts
- Americans with Disabilities Act
- Apartheid
- Barrio
- Black Bourgeoisie
- Black Enterprise
- Black Power
- Boycott
- Bracero Program
- Brain Drain
- Caste
- Colonialism
- Color Line
- Culture of Poverty
- Declining Significance of Race, The
- Digital Divide
- Discrimination
- Discrimination, Environmental Hazards
- Discrimination, Measuring
- Discrimination in Housing
- Domestic Work
- Double Consciousness
- Environmental Justice
- Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
- FUBU Company
- Gaming, Native American
- Gentrification
- Ghetto
- Glass Ceiling
- Globalization
- Guest Workers
- Health Disparities
- Homelessness
- Hourglass Economy
- Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988
- Informal Economy
- Institutional Discrimination
- Internal Colonialism
- Labor Market Segmentation
- Labor Unions
- Maquiladoras
- Marxism and Racism
- Model Minority
- Operation Bootstrap
- Political Economy
- Public Housing
- Redlining
- Remittances
- Reparations, Slavery
- Repatriation of Mexican Americans
- Resegregation
- Reservation System
- Restrictive Covenants
- Return Migration
- Social Capital
- Social Darwinism
- Social Inequality
- Social Mobility
- Split-Labor Market
- Talented Tenth
- Transnational People
- Underclass
- Water Rights
- Wealth Distribution
- “Welfare Queen”
- Welfare Reform
- Education
- Affirmative Action in Education
- African American Studies
- Afrocentricity
- Antiracist Education
- Asian American Studies
- Asian American Studies, Mixed-Heritage
- Bell Curve, The
- Bilingual Education
- Biomedicine, African Americans and
- Black Intellectuals
- Brain Drain
- Brown v. Board of Education
- Chicago School of Race Relations
- Child Development
- Cisneros v. Corpus Christi School District
- Cultural Capital
- Digital Divide
- Discrimination
- Educational Performance and Attainment
- Educational Stratification
- English Immersion
- Fraternities and Sororities
- Grutter v. Bollinger
- Head Start and Immigrants
- Hernandez v. Texas
- Higher Education
- Higher Education: Racial Battle Fatigue
- Hull House School of Race Relations
- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990
- Intelligence Tests
- Intercultural Communication
- Latina/o Studies
- Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF)
- Model Minority
- Multicultural Education
- Native American Education
- Pipeline
- Resegregation
- Reverse Discrimination
- San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez
- School Desegregation
- School Desegregation, Attitudes Concerning
- Science Faculties, Women of Color on
- Segregation
- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- Separate but Equal
- Social Capital
- Spanglish
- Talented Tenth
- Testing
- Title IX
- Tracking
- United States v. Fordice
- Gender and Family
- Abortion
- African Americans, Migration of
- African American Women and Work
- Aging
- Body Image
- Canada, Aboriginal Women
- Child Development
- Civil Rights Movement, Women and
- Culture of Poverty
- Domestic Violence
- Domestic Work
- Familism
- Family
- Feminism
- Feminism, Black
- Feminism, Latina
- Gender and Race, Intersection of
- Hip-Hop and Rap, Women and
- Homelessness
- Hull House School of Race Relations
- Immigration and Gender
- Incarcerated Parents
- Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978
- Institutional Discrimination
- Intermarriage
- Kinship
- Kwanzaa
- Leisure
- Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender
- Loving v. Virginia
- Machismo
- Parenting
- Rites of Passage
- Science Faculties, Women of Color on
- Sexual Harassment
- Sexuality
- Social Support
- Social Work
- Title IX
- Transracial Adoption
- Veil
- “Welfare Queen”
- Welfare Reform
- Whiteness and Masculinity
- Global Perspectives
- Apartheid
- Apartheid, Laws
- Argentina
- Asylum
- Australia
- Australia, Indigenous People
- Back to Africa Monument
- Balkans
- Belize
- Borderlands
- Bracero Program
- Brain Drain
- Brazil
- Britain's Irish
- Burakumin
- Canada
- Canada, Aboriginal Women
- Canada, First Nations
- Cape Verde
- Caribbean
- Caste
- China
- Citizenship
- Colombia
- Colonialism
- Cosmopolitanism
- Creole
- Cross-Frontier Contacts
- Cuba
- Cuba: Migration and Demography
- Diaspora
- Dillingham Flaw
- Dominican Republic
- Ethnic Conflict
- Ethnocentrism
- Ethnonational Minorities
- Europe
- Foreign Students
- France
- Genocide
- Globalization
- Global Perspectives
- Guest Workers
- Hafu
- Haiti
- Hate Crimes in Canada
- Hawai'i, Race in
- Holocaust
- Holocaust Deniers and Revisionists
- Hong Kong
- India
- Intercultural Communication
- International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
- Ireland
- Jamaica
- Japan
- Kenya
- Latin America, Indigenous People
- London Bombing (July 7, 2005)
- Maquiladoras
- Marxism and Racism
- Mexico
- Muslims in Canada
- Muslims in Europe
- Nigeria
- Nikkeijin
- Northern Island, Racism in
- Orientalism
- Peru
- Puerto Rico
- Race, Comparative Perspectives
- Race, UNESCO Statements on
- Racism
- Refugees
- Remittances
- Roma
- Russia
- Sami
- Santería
- Singapore
- South Africa, Republic of
- Taiwan
- Transnational People
- Trinidad
- Turkey
- United Kingdom
- Veil
- Xenophobia
- Zapatista Rebellion
- Zimbabwe
- Zionism
- Health and Social Welfare
- Abortion
- Adoption
- Aging
- Americans with Disabilities Act
- Biomedicine, African Americans and
- Body Image
- Census, U.S.
- Child Development
- Cuba: Migration and Demography
- Discrimination, Environmental
- Drug Use
- Environmental Justice
- Eugenics
- Familism
- Family
- Health, Immigrant
- Health Disparities
- HIV/AIDS
- Hurricane Katrina
- Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978
- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990
- Leisure
- Life Expectancy
- Medical Experimentation
- Native American Health Care
- Native Americans, Environment and
- Social Support
- Social Work
- “Welfare Queen”
- Welfare Reform
- Immigration and Citizenship
- Acculturation
- Alien Land Acts
- Americanization
- Assimilation
- Asylum
- Bilingual Education
- “Boat People”
- Borderlands
- Border Patrol
- Brain Drain
- Chinese Exclusion Act
- Citizenship
- Colonialism
- Colonias
- Cosmopolitanism
- Cross-Frontier Contacts
- Dawes Act of 1887
- Deficit Model of Ethnicity
- Diaspora
- Dillingham Flaw
- Domestic Work
- English Immersion
- Ethnic Enclave, Economic Impact of
- Ethnic Succession
- Ethnonational Minorities
- Foreign Students
- Gentlemen's Agreement (1907–1908)
- Guest Workers
- Haitian and Cuban Immigrations: A Comparison
- Head Start and Immigrants
- Health, Immigrant
- Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996
- Immigrant Communities
- Immigration, Economic Impact of
- Immigration, U.S.
- Immigration and Gender
- Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
- Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS)
- Immigration and Race
- Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
- “Marielitos”
- McCarran-Walter Act of 1952
- Minority Rights
- National Origins Systems
- Operation Bootstrap
- PATRIOT Act of 2001
- Proposition 187
- Refugees
- Remittances
- Repatriation of Mexican Americans
- Return Migration
- Symbolic Ethnicity
- Third-Generation Principle
- Transnational People
- Voting Rights
- “Wetbacks”
- Xenophobia
- Legislation, Court Decisions, and Treaties
- Alaska Natives, Legislation Concerning
- Alien Land Acts
- Americans with Disabilities Act
- Apartheid, Laws
- Blockbusting
- Brown v. Board of Education
- Bureau of Indian Affairs
- Chinese Exclusion Act
- Cisneros v. Corpus Christi School District
- Dawes Act of 1887
- Dillingham Flaw
- Dred Scott v. Sandford
- Emancipation Proclamation
- Gautreaux Decision
- Gentlemen's Agreement (1907–1908)
- Grutter v. Bollinger
- Hernandez v. Texas
- Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996
- Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
- Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
- Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978
- Indian Gaming and Regulatory Act of 1988
- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990
- Loving v. Virginia
- McCarran-Walter Act of 1952
- Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990
- Native American Identity, Legal Background
- Operation Bootstrap
- PATRIOT Act of 2001
- Plessy v. Ferguson
- Proposition 187
- Repatriation of Mexican Americans
- San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez
- Separate but Equal
- Title IX
- Trail of Broken Treaties
- Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
- United States v. Fordice
- Voting Rights
- Media, Sports, and Entertainment
- Birth of a Nation, The
- Black Cinema
- Body Image
- Digital Divide
- Film, Latino
- Harlem Renaissance
- Hip-Hop
- Hip-Hop and Rap, Women and
- Kwanzaa
- Leisure
- Media and Race
- Negro League Baseball
- Popular Culture, Racism and
- Rap: The Genre
- Rap: The Movement
- Organizations
- American Indian Movement
- American Jewish Committee
- Anti-Defamation League
- ASPIRA
- Back to Africa Movement
- Black Panther Party
- Brown Berets
- Bureau of Indian Affairs
- Census, U.S.
- Chicago Movement
- Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
- Father Divine Peace Mission Movement
- Fraternities and Sororities
- Gangs
- Japanese American Citizens League
- Ku Klux Klan
- Labor Unions
- La Raza Unida Party
- Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF)
- National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
- National Congress of American Indians
- National Council of La Raza
- National Indian Youth Council
- National Rainbow Coalition
- National Urban League
- Nation of Islam
- Operation PUSH
- Pachucos/Pachucas
- Puerto Rican Armed Forces of National Liberation (FALN)
- Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund
- Religion, Minority
- Southern Christian Leadership Council (SCLC)
- Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
- Young Lords
- Prejudice and Discrimination
- Affirmative Action in Education
- Affirmative Action in the Workplace
- American Apartheid
- American Dilemma, An
- Antiracist Education
- Anti-Semitism
- Apartheid
- Authoritarian Personality
- Aztlán
- Birth of a Nation, The
- Black Metropolis
- Body Image
- Civil Rights Movement
- Civil Rights Movement, Women and
- Colonialism
- Color Line
- Contact Hypothesis
- Crime and Race
- Critical Race Theory
- Deficit Model of Ethnicity
- Discrimination
- Discrimination, Environmental Hazards
- Discrimination, Measuring
- Discrimination in Housing
- Double Consciousness
- Environmental Justice
- Ethnic Conflict
- Eugenics
- Hate Crimes
- Hate Crimes in Canada
- Health Disparities
- Higher Education: Racial Battle Fatigue
- Holocaust Deniers and Revisionists
- Housing Audits
- Immigration and Race
- Institutional Discrimination
- Intelligence Tests
- Intergroup Relations, Surveying
- Internal Colonialism
- Internalized Racism
- International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
- Interracial Friendships
- Invisible Man
- Jim Crow
- Ku Klux Klan
- Labeling
- Lynching
- Marginalization
- Marxism and Racism
- Medical Experimentation
- Military and Race
- Minority Rights
- Nativism
- Orientalism
- Popular Culture, Racism and
- Prejudice
- Privilege
- Racialization
- Racial Profiling
- Racism
- Racism, Aversive
- Racism, Cultural
- Racism, Types of
- Racism, Unintentional
- Racism, White
- Reparations, Slavery
- Reverse Discrimination
- Robbers Cave Experiment
- Scapegoats
- Segregation
- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- Slavery
- Social Darwinism
- Social Distance
- Social Inequality
- Stereotypes
- Stereotype Threat
- Sundown Towns
- “Us and Them”
- “Welfare Queen”
- White Supremacy Movement
- Whiteness
- Whiteness, Measuring
- Whiteness and Masculinity
- Xenophobia
- Public Policy
- Abortion
- Affirmative Action in Education
- Affirmative Action in the Workplace
- American Apartheid
- American Dilemma, An
- Apartheid, Laws
- Asylum
- Bilingual Education
- Black Conservatives
- Black Metropolis
- Blockbusting
- Census, U.S.
- Citizenship
- Civil Disobedience
- Civil Rights Movement
- Community Empowerment
- Criminal Processing
- Death Penalty
- Digital Divide
- Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
- Gautreaux Decision
- Gerrymandering
- Hate Crimes
- Health Disparities
- Homelessness
- Housing Audits
- Hurricane Katrina
- Intelligence Tests
- Juvenile Justice
- Ku Klux Klan
- Labor Unions
- Lynching
- Marginalization
- Marxism and Racism
- Medical Experimentation
- Native Americans, Environment and
- Nativism
- Orientalism
- Political Economy
- Proposition 187
- Public Housing
- Racial Profiling
- Redlining
- Refugees
- Reparations, Slavery
- Reverse Discrimination
- Segregation
- Separate but Equal
- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- Sexual Harassment
- Slavery
- Sovereignty, Native American
- Testing
- Title IX
- Voting Rights
- White Supremacy Movement
- Racial, Ethnic, and Nationality Groups
- Afghan Americans
- African Americans
- Africans in the United States
- Albanian Americans
- Aleuts
- Amish
- Arab Americans
- Armenian Americans
- Asian Americans
- Assyrian Americans
- Australia, Indigenous People
- Bangladeshi Americans
- Belgian Americans
- Blackfeet
- Bosnian Americans
- Brazilian Americans
- Britain's Irish
- Bulgarian Americans
- Burakumin
- Cambodian Americans
- Canada, First Nations
- Canadian Americans
- Caribbean Americans
- Central Americans in the United States
- Cherokee
- Cheyenne
- Chinese Americans
- Choctaw
- Creole
- Croatian Americans
- Cuban Americans
- Cypriot Americans
- Czech Americans
- Danish Americans
- Desi
- Dominican Americans
- Dutch Americans
- Egyptian Americans
- Estonian Americans
- Filipino Americans
- Finnish Americans
- French Americans
- Georgian Americans
- German Americans
- Greek Americans
- Guatemalan Americans
- Haitian Americans
- Haole
- Hawaiians
- Hispanics
- Hmong Americans
- Honduran Americans
- Hopi
- Hungarian Americans
- Hutterites
- Icelandic Americans
- Indian Americans
- Indonesian Americans
- Iranian Americans
- Iraqi Americans
- Irish Americans
- Issei
- Italian Americans
- Jamaican Americans
- Japanese Americans
- Jewish Americans
- Jewry, Black American
- Jordanian Americans
- Korean Americans
- Kurdish Americans
- Laotian Americans
- Latin America, Indigenous People
- Latvian Americans
- Lebanese Americans
- Lithuanian Americans
- Mennonites
- Menominee
- Mexican Americans
- Muslim Americans
- Myanmarese Americans
- Native Americans
- Navajo
- Nicaraguan Americans
- Nigerian Americans
- Nisei
- Norwegian Americans
- Ojibwa
- Pacific Islanders
- Pakistani Americans
- Palestinian Americans
- Panamanian Americans
- Peruvian Americans
- Polish Americans
- Portuguese Americans
- Pueblos
- Puerto Rican Americans
- Roma
- Romanian Americans
- Salvadoran Americans
- Sami
- Samoan Americans
- Sansei
- Schmiedeleut
- Serbian Americans
- Sicilian Americans
- Sioux
- Slovak Americans
- Slovene Americans
- South Americans in the United States
- Spanish Americans
- Sri Lankan Americans
- Swedish Americans
- Syrian Americans
- Thai Americans
- Tibetan Americans
- Tlingit
- Tongan Americans
- Turkish Americans
- Ugandan Americans
- Ukrainian Americans
- United Kingdom, Immigrants and Their Descendants in the United States
- Vietnamese Americans
- West Indian Americans
- Religion
- Amish
- Civil Religion
- Father Divine Peace Mission Movement
- Hutterites
- Islamophobia
- Jewish Americans
- Jewry, Black American
- Mennonites
- Mormons, Race and
- Muslim Americans
- Muslims in Canada
- Muslims in Europe
- Nation of Islam
- Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990
- Peyote
- Religion
- Religion, African Americans
- Religion, Minority
- Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993
- Religious Movements, New
- Roman Catholics
- Sacred Sites, Native Americans
- Sacred Versus Secular
- Santería
- Schmeideleut
- Southern Christian Leadership Council (SCLC)
- Symbolic Religiosity
- Veil
- Sociopolitical Movements and Conflicts
- Abolitionism: The Movement
- Abolitionism: The People
- African Americans, Migration of
- Alamo, The
- American Indian Movement
- ASPIRA
- Aztlán
- Back to Africa Movement
- Black Nationalism
- Black Panther Party
- Black Power
- Boycott
- Brown Berets
- Chicano Movement
- Civil Disobedience
- Civil Rights Movement
- Civil Rights Movement, Women and
- Cross-Frontier Contacts
- Crown Heights, Brooklyn
- Environmental Justice
- Father Divine Peace Mission Movement
- Feminism
- Feminism, Black
- Feminism, Latina
- Harlem Renaissance
- Jewish-Black Relations: A Historical Perspective
- Jewish-Black Relations: The Contemporary Period
- Kennewick Man
- Ku Klux Klan
- La Raza
- La Raza Unida Party
- London Bombings (July 7, 2005)
- Military and Race
- Multicultural Social Movements
- Nation of Islam
- Puerto Rican Armed Forces of National Liberation (FALN)
- Red Power
- Sand Creek Massacre
- Sovereignty, Native American
- Terrorism
- Trail of Broken Treaties
- Voting Rights
- Water Rights
- White Supremacy Movement
- Wounded Knee (1890 and 1973)
- Young Lords
- Zapatista Rebellion
- Zionism
- Zoot Suit Riots
About the Editors
About the General EditorRichard T. Schaefer is the Vincent DePaul Professor of Sociology at DePaul University and served as chair of the department from 1997 through 2003. He previously taught at Western Illinois University in Macomb, where he also served as Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences.
Dr. Schaefer has been interested in race and ethnicity since the beginning of his college studies. As an undergraduate, he wrote a refereed paper on African Americans in the military and since has maintained a constant interest in the changing mosaic of race and ethnicity in the United States and worldwide. He received his BA in Sociology from Northwestern University and then continued his studies with an MA and PhD in Sociology from the University of Chicago. Dr. Schaefer's continuing interest in race relations led him to write his master's thesis on the membership of the Ku Klux Klan and his doctoral thesis on racial prejudice and race relations in Great Britain. He has taught sociology and courses on mul-ticulturalism for 30 years. He has been invited to give special presentations to students and faculty on racial and ethnic diversity in Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, and Texas.
Dr. Schaefer authored the books Racial and Ethnic Groups, eleventh edition (Prentice Hall, 2008) and Race and Ethnicity in the United States, fourth edition (Prentice Hall, 2007). He is also the author of the eleventh edition of Sociology (2009), the seventh edition of Sociology: A Brief Introduction (2008), and the third edition of Sociology Matters (2008), all published by McGraw-Hill. Schaefer coauthored Extraordinary Groups (8th edition, Worth Publications) in 2007. His articles and book reviews have appeared in many journals, including American Journal of Sociology, Phylon: A Review of Race and Culture, Contemporary Sociology, Sociology and Social Research, Sociological Quarterly, and Teaching Sociology. He served as president of the Midwest Sociological Society from 1994 through 1995. In recognition of his achievements in undergraduate teaching, he was named Vincent DePaul Professor of Sociology in 2004 at DePaul University.
About the Associate EditorShu-Ju Ada Cheng is Associate Professor in the Department of Sociology at DePaul University. She received her PhD in Sociology from the University of Texas at Austin, an MA in International Studies from the University of Oregon, a Graduate Certificate in Women's Studies from the University of Oregon, and a BAin Spanish Language and Literature from Fu-Jen University, Taiwan.
Cheng's areas of interest include international migration, globalization, development, work, gender, and ethnography. Her recent publications include her book, Serving the Household and the Nation: Filipina Domestics and the Politics of Identity in Taiwan (Lexington Books, 2006), and an article, “Rethinking the Globalization of Domestic Service: Foreign Domestics, State Control, and the Politics of Identity in Taiwan” in Gender & Society (2003), which received both the Women of Color Caucus Essay Award from the National Women's Studies Association and the Section on Sex and Gender Distinguished Article Award of the American Sociological Association. Cheng's other published articles include “When the Personal Meets the Global at Home: Filipina Domestics and Their Female Employers in Taiwan,” Frontiers: A Journal of Women's Studies (2004); “Contextual Politics of Difference in Transnational Care: The Rhetoric of Filipina Domestics' Employers in Taiwan,” Feminist Review (2004); and “Right to Mothering: Motherhood as a Transborder Concern in the Age of Globalization,” Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering (2004). Other scholarly recognition includes winning the Carrie Chapman Catt Prize (Iowa State University) for Research on Women and Politics (Project Title: Serving the Household and the Nation: Filipina Domestics and the Politics of Nationhood in Taiwan) and winning the Cheryl Allyn Miller Award (Sociologists for Women in Society) on Women and Paid Work (Paper Title: Articulating the Household and the Nation: Foreign Domestics, State Control, and National Identity in Taiwan). In addition to her scholarship, she received the university Excellence in Teaching Award from DePaul University in 2002.
About the Assistant EditorKiljoong Kim is research director at John J. Egan Urban Center at DePaul University. Kim has been teaching statistics in social sciences for the past 10 years and has taught research methods, race and ethnicity, sociology of sports, and spatial analysis. He is currently a doctoral student in sociology at University of Illinois at Chicago with a concentration in race, ethnicity, and gender.
Born in Seoul, South Korea, and having grown up in a diverse neighborhood on the north side of Chicago, Kim has always been interested in the ways in which people lived and the affect of the buildings and urban landscape on how people work and live. Upon receiving his BS in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, he became a research assistant at the American Medical Association, and then a research analyst at the Riverside Publishing Company, where he worked on the development of standardized tests. During this time, Kim earned an MA in Sociology from DePaul University in Chicago, where he wrote histhesis critiquing The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life, a controversial book about intelligence and its disparities by race, ethnicity, and class.
Kim's interests in quantitative research led to a research statistician position at Nielsen Media Research. His adjunct position at DePaul University as the instructor of statistics led to his current position at the Egan Center.
Kim was a coeditor of and contributor to The New Chicago: A Social and Cultural Analysis (Temple University Press, 2006) and has had an active role in such community research projects as the New Communities Project and the Preservation Compact, the former funded by the MacArthur Foundation and the latter funded by the MacArthur Foundation and the Urban Land Institute Foundation. Kim is on the board of directors for the Asian American Institute, the Korean American Research and Development Institute, and on the advisory board for the University of Illinois Extension.
Contributors
Abu S. Abarry, Temple University
J. Q. Adams, Western Illinois University
Marina A. Adler, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Gustavo Agosto-DaFonseca, Baruch College, City University of New York
Michael Bernabé Aguilera, University of Oregon
Benigno E. Aguirre, University of Delaware
Donna L. Akers, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Ben Alexander, City University of New York
Luis Alvarez, University of California, San Diego
Sandy Alvarez, Shippensburg University
Alma Alvarez-Smith, Arizona State University
Amy E. Ansell, Bard College
Julie E. Artis, DePaul University
Molefi Kete Asante, Temple University
Mary Welek Atwell, Radford University
Duke W. Austin, University of Colorado
Abu Bakarr Bah, Northern Illinois University
Damayanti Banerjee, University of Western Kentucky
Michael Banton, University of Bristol
Jiemin Bao, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
R. Gabriela Barajas, Columbia University
Steven E. Barkan, University of Maine
Marcellus C. Barksdale, Morehouse College
John Barnshaw, University of Delaware
Robyn J. Barrus, Brigham Young University
Abel A. Bartley, Clemson University
Victor Bascara, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Jeanne Batalova, Migration Policy Institute
Michael M. Bell, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Corinne Lally Benedetto, DePaul University
Lois Benjamin, Hampton University
Michael I. J. Bennett, DePaul University
Natalie Bennett DePaul University
Donald J. Berg, South Dakota State University
Karen S. Boyd, University of Notre Dame
Melinda Brahimi, Baruch College, City University of New York
Andrea Malkin Brenner, American University
Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Columbia University
Christopher George Buck, Independent Scholar
Ashley A. Buller, Iowa State University
Meghan A. Burke, Loyola University Chicago
Craig Calhoun, Social Science Research Council
Brent Berry, University of Toronto
Ruth Bettina Birn, War Crimes and Special Investigations Enforcement Program of Canada
Kay J. Blalock, St. Louis Community College
Kenneth Bolton, Jr., Southeastern Louisiana University
Christopher Bondy, DePauw University
Heather D. Boonstra, Guttmacher Institute
Luisa N. Borrell, Columbia University
Thomas J. Bouchard, Jr., University of Minnesota
Thomas Calhoun, Jackson State University
Gregory R. Campbell, University of Montana
Julia Miller Cantzler, Ohio State University
Dennis Carlson, Miami University
Leonard A. Carlson, Emory University
Deborah Carr, Rutgers University University of Wisconsin
Amy E. Carreiro, University of Tulsa
AnneMarie Cesario, The Graduate Center, City University of New York
Gary Chaison, Clark University
Neil Chakraborti, University of Leicester
Laura Chambers, Harold Washington College
Jerome A. Chanes, Brandeis University
Stewart Chang, California State University, Long Beach
Shu-Ju Ada Cheng, DePaul University
Simon Cheng, University of Connecticut
Eric Cheyfitz, Cornell University
Andrew Cho, Tacoma Community College
Glynis Christine, St. Philip's College
Julia Chuang, University of California, Berkeley
Jack Clarke, DePaul University
Arica L. Coleman, Johns Hopkins University
Roberta L. Coles, Marquette University
Sharon M. Collins, University of Illinois at Chicago
Stavros T. Constantinou, Ohio State University, Mansfield Campus
Paul R. Croll, University of Minnesota
Clark E. Cunningham, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
David Cunningham, Brandeis University
Heather M. Dalmage, Roosevelt University
Seif Da'Na, University of Wisconsin–Parkside
Roger Daniels, University of Cincinnati
Wei Ming Dariotis, San Francisco State University
Gary C. David, Bentley College
Diane de Anda, University of California, Los Angeles
Mary Jo Deegan, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Héctor L. Delgado, University of La Verne
Rutledge M. Dennis, George Mason University
Meera E. Deo, University of California, Los Angeles
Christina Diaz, DePaul University
Nandi E. Dill, New York University
Elena Dingu-Kyrklund, Stockholm University
Danielle Dirks, University of Texas at Austin
Peter Doell, Alliance & Nazarene University College
Karen Manges Douglas, Sam Houston State University
John F. Dovidio, Yale University
Korie L. Edwards, Ohio State University
Howard J. Ehrlich, The Prejudice Institute
Don Elligan, Harold Washington City College
Brandy J. Ellison, University of Notre Dame
David G. Embrick, Loyola University Chicago
J. Lynn England, Brigham Young University
Sylvia Escárcega, DePaul University
Dionne Espinoza, California State University, Los Angeles
George J. Fachner, Jr., George Mason University
Richard P. Farkas, DePaul University
John E. Farley, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville
Joe Feagin, Texas A&M University
Abby L. Ferber, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs
Kenneth Fidel, DePaul University
Gary Alan Fine, Northwestern University
Jan Fiola, Minnesota State University Moorhead
Mako Fitts, Seattle University
Kathleen J. Fitzgerald, Columbia College
Terrence Fitzgerald, Unit 4 School System, Champaign, Illinois
Camilla Fojas, DePaul University
Georges Fouron, Stony Brook University
Samuel L. Gaertner, University of Delaware
Peter Gale, University of South Australia
Alma M. Garcia, Santa Clara University
Christine Lynn Garlough, University of Wisconsin–Madison
Roberta Garner, DePaul University
Julia Gelatt, Princeton University
Navid Ghani, Five Towns College
Doğan Göçmen, University of London
Henry Goldschmidt, Wesleyan University
Angela Ann Gonzales, Cornell University
Harry Goulbourne, London South Bank University
Kimberly Goyette, Temple University
Dipankar Gupta, Jawaharlal Nehru University
Jamie L. Gusrang, University of Connecticut
Miro Hacek, University of Ljubljana
Shaconna Marie Haley, American University
J. Mark Halstead, University of Huddersfield
Debra Newman Ham, Morgan State University
Steve Hamilton, American University
Chong-suk Han, Temple University
Troy Harden, Chicago State University
Vinay Harpalani, New York University
Donna Marie Harris, Warner School, University of Rochester
Othello Harris, Miami University
Douglas Hartmann, University of Minnesota
Christiane Harzig, Arizona State University
Lawrence Hashima, California State University, Long Beach
Timothy Havens, University of Iowa
Karina J. Havrilla, American Sociological Association
Ted Henken, Baruch College, City University of New York
Max Herman, Rutgers University
P Rafael Hernández-Arias, DePaul University
Kim D. Hester-Williams, Sonoma State University
Walter W. Hill, St. Mary's College
Lynn Horton, Chapman University
Kevin G Howard, Dundalk Institute of Technology
Evren Hosgor, Lancaster University
Alexandra Hrycak, Reed College
Matthew W. Hughey, University of Virginia
Li-Ching Hung, Mississippi State University
Pamela Rae Huteson, University of Alaska, Southeast
Jenny Irons, Hamilton College
Gayle Y. Iwamasa, DePaul University
Regine O. Jackson, Emory University
J. Jackson-Preece, London School of Economics
Cardell K. Jacobson, Brigham Young University
Peter Jacques, University of Central Florida
Andrew Jakubowicz, University of Technology Sydney
Roy F. Janisch, Pittsburg State University
Jeffrey C. Johnson, Independent Scholar
Andrew Jolivette, San Francisco State University
Stephen Francis Jones, Mount Holyoke College
Shawn Malia Kana'iaupuni, Kamehameha Schools
Diana Leilani Karafin, Ohio State University
Maulana Karenga, California State University, Long Beach
Mary E. Kelly, University of Central Missouri
Michael J. Kelly, Creighton University
Ivy Kennelly, George Washington University
Romana Khaoury, Queens University, Belfast
Barbara Kim, California State University, Long Beach
Joon K. Kim, Colorado State University
Kiljoong Kim, DePaul University
Leslie C. Baker Kimmons, Chicago State University
Peter Kivisto, Augustana University
Jennifer M. Klein, DePaul University
Matja Klemenčič, University of Maribor
Lisa Konczal Barry University
Andrew G. Kourvetaris, Northeastern Illinois University
George Andrew Kourvetaris, Northern Illinois University
John Koval, DePaul University
Donald B. Kraybill, Elizabethtown College
Adam Krims, University of Nottingham
Glen David Kuecker, DePauw University
Kian-Woon Kwok, Nanyang Technological University
Yvonne M. Lau, DePaul University
Mahendra Lawoti, Western Michigan University
Brandon C. Ledward, University of Hawai'i at Manoa
Matthew R. Lee, Louisiana State University
Cheryl B. Leggon, Georgia Institute of Technology
Tracey Lewis-Elligan, DePaul University
Jeff Libman, Truman College
John Lie, University of California, Berkeley
Sheryl Lightfoot, University of Minnesota
Howard Lindsey, DePaul University
Eric Yang Liu, Baylor University
James W. Loewen, Catholic University of America
Nancy Lopez, University of New Mexico
Xing Lu, DePaul University
Pat Luce-Aoelua, National Office of Samoan Affairs
Aloysius M. Lugira, Boston College
Tracey Mabrey, DePaul University
Kinuthia Macharia, American University of Nigeria
Iain S. Maclean, James Madison University
Stephanie Madon, Iowa State University
Bernard Maegi, Normandale Community College
Mike A. Males, Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice
Theodoric Manley, Jr., DePaul University
Keith Andrew Mann, Cardinal Stritch University
Maxine L. Margolis, University of Florida
Gerardo Marin, University of San Francisco
Lisa B. Markman, Princeton University
Derek Martin, Southern Illinois University
Suzanne B. Martin, University of California, Berkeley
Martha A. Martinez, DePaul University
Douglas S. Massey Princeton University
Félix Masud-Piloto, DePaul University
Arieahn Matamonasa-Bennett, DePaul University
Scott Mathers, Mississippi State University
Armand L. Mauss, Washington State University
Christopher D. Maxwell, Michigan State University University of Michigan
Eric Michael Mazur, Virginia Wesleyan College
Erin McCoy, San Francisco State University
Michael McCurry, South Dakota State University
Pancho McFarland, Chicago State University
Beth Frankel Merenstein, Central Connecticut State University
Karen L. Meyer DePaul University
Deborah W. Meyers Migration Policy Institute
Diditi Mitra, Brookdale Community College
Amanda Moras, Dickinson College
Clayton Mosher, Washington State University, Vancouver
Jennifer C. Mueller, Texas A&M University
Paul T. Murray, Siena College
Susan Needham, California State University, Dominguez Hills
Kumiko Nemoto, Western Kentucky University
Michelle Newton-Francis, American University
François Nielsen, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Jack Niemonen, University of South Dakota
Fuifuilupe 'Alilia Niumeitolu, University of California, Berkeley
Casey Oberlin, DePaul University
Suzanne Oboler, City University of New York
Dina G. Okamoto, University of California, Davis
Michael A. Olivas, University of Houston
Maggie O'Neill, Loughborough University
Matthew Oware, DePauw University
Judith Owens-Manley, Hamilton College
Efren N. Padilla, California State University, East Bay
Nicholas C. Pano Western Illinois University
Vincent N. Parrillo William Paterson University
Nicholas Parsons, Washington State University, Vancouver
Anju Mary Paul, University of Michigan
Bimal Kanti Paul, Kansas State University
Fern M. Paul, University of New Brunswick
Monique R. Payne-Pikus, DePaul University
Sabrina Pendergrass, Harvard University
Donald D. Pepion, New Mexico State University
Judith Ann Perez, Fordham University
Barbara Perry, University of Ontario Institute of Technology
Gary Kinte Perry, Seattle University
Sheila Renee Peters, Fisk University
Mark E. Pfeifer, Hmong Studies Journal
Fred L. Pincus, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Alexander W. Pisciotta, Kutztown University
Caroline Plüss, Nanyang Technological University
Jack Nusan Porter, Spencer Institute for Social Research
Daniel Pouesi Kin Publications
Devyani Prabhat, New York University
Kristopher Proctor, University of California, Riverside
Bandana Purkayastha, University of Connecticut
Karen D. Pyke, University of California, Riverside
Ralph E. Pyle, Michigan State University
Lincoln Quillian, Northwestern University
Richard Race, Roehampton University
Catherine S. Ramírez, University of California, Santa Cruz
Kathryn R. L. Rand, University of North Dakota
Emily Rauscher, New York University
Meghan Ashlin Rich, University of Scranton
C. Centae Richards, Arizona State University
James T. Richardson, University of Nevada, Reno
Victor Rios, Jr., College of the Desert
Christina Rivers, DePaul University
Polly Rizova, Boston University
Tom I. Romero II, Hamline University
Lydia Rose DeVry University
Michael J. Rosenfeld, Stanford University
Mark Rubinfeld, Westminster College
Scott Edward Rutledge, Temple University
Emily Ryo, Stanford University
Rogelio Saenz, Texas A&M University
Alan Saltzstein, California State University, Fullerton
William Alfred Sampson, DePaul University
Raymond San Diego, San Francisco State University
Diane Sandage, Western Illinois University
Linda Sanderson, University of California, Davis
Jenniffer M. Santos-Hernández, University of Delaware
Paul Khalil Saucier, Northeastern University
Arthur Scarritt, University of Iowa
Peter D. Schaefer, University of Iowa
Richard T. Schaefer, DePaul University
Kyle Scherr, Iowa State University
Traci Schlesinger, DePaul University
Janet Ward Schofield, University of Pittsburgh
Margaret Mackenzie Schwartz, University of Iowa
Jeremy Seekings, University of Cape Town
Hinda Seif, Rutgers University, New Brunswick
Duško Sekulić, University of Zagreb
Saher Farooq Selod, Loyola University, Chicago
Christie A. Sennott, University of Colorado at Boulder
Jason Eugene Shelton Rice University
Jean H. Shin, American Sociological Association
Stephen J. Sills, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Toni Sims, University of Louisiana, Lafayette
Alena Singleton, Rutgers University
Carlos Siordia, Texas A&M University
Davorn Sisavath, San Francisco State University
Emily Skop, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs
Cary Stacy Smith, Mississippi State University
David Norman Smith, University of Kansas
Marsha Smith, Augustana College
Tom W. Smith, National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago
William A. Smith, University of Utah
Sonia W. Soltero, DePaul University
Stephanie Southworth, University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Sarah Spain, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center
Nancy E. Spencer, Bowling Green State University
Rainier Spencer, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Gregory D. Squires, George Washington University
Richard Stahler-Sholk, Eastern Michigan University
Melanie Stansbury, Cornell University
Michael F. Steltenkamp, Wheeling Jesuit University
John Stone, Boston University
Madeleine R. Stoner, University of Southern California
Claudia Tazreiter, University of New South Wales
Bhoomi Thakore, Loyola University, Chicago
Darryl Clark Thomas, Pennsylvania State University
Doug Thomson, University of Toronto
Shatema A. Threadcraft, Yale University
Allyson Tintiangco-Cubales, San Francisco State University
Lourdes Torres, DePaul University
Manuel R. Torres, University of Delaware
Rosemary Traoré, University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Teruyuki Tsuji, Florida International University
Sirpa Tuormainen, University of California, Berkeley
Milton Vickerman, University of Colorado
Salvador Vidal-Ortiz, University of Virginia
Neil Vincent American University
Willem van Vliet, DePaul University
Elizabeth Arbuckle Wabindato, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
Mohamed Wann, Baruch College, City University of New York
Elisabeth I. Ward, University of California, Berkeley
Leland Ware, University of Delaware
Bijan Warner, University of Chicago
Judith Ann Warner, Texas A&M International University
Patricia Y. Warren, Florida State University
Jill Watts, California State University, San Marcos
Briana M. Weadock, American University
Melissa F. Weiner, Quinnipiac University
Joseph Owen Weixelman, University of New Mexico
Jennifer Willard, Iowa State University
Vernon J. Williams, Jr., Indiana University, Bloomington
Frank Harold Wilson, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
J. Alan Winter, Connecticut College
Julia M. Woesthoff, DePaul University
Daniel P. Wolk, University of Alabama at Birmingham
Andrew Woolford, University of Manitoba
Robert A. Wortham, North Carolina Central University
Jane H. Yamashiro, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, University of Tokyo
June Ying Yee, Ryerson University
Grace J. Yoo, San Francisco State University
David Zarefsky, Northwestern University
Sarah Zell, University of British Columbia
Assata Zerai, University of Illinois
Introduction
The issue of race and ethnicity is critical in contemporary life. It is a key element, whether explicitly stated or not, in debates concerning governmental leadership, health care, religion, aging, the media, and public policy in general. The issue of race and ethnicity is even more explicit in areas such as housing, music, sport, business, immigration, poverty, and antiterrorism.
Variously described as a melting pot, salad bowl, and a kaleidoscope, the United States is, at the very least, a changing mosaic of people. No one could have anticipated the future when E Pluribus Unum (“out of many is one”) was adopted as the motto on the Great Seal of the United States in an act of Congress in 1782. Indeed, also central to the seal are symbols from the countries that had settled the United States to that point—England, France, Germany, Holland, Ireland, and Scotland. Already the presence of millions of Native American tribal people and the African slaves had been set aside.
The country has since been, at different points, defined by the enslavement of Black people, the subjugation of American Indians to expand the country west, the annexation of half of Mexico, the colonization of islands in the Pacific and the Caribbean, the forced internment of people of Japanese ancestry, and the receiving of refugees resulting from the wars the United States fought or backed in Europe, Asia, Central America, the Middle East, and elsewhere.
The subject of this encyclopedia is race and ethnicity in society. This is a broad, complex topic that has undergone serious scholarly study for well over a century and was preceded by literary treatments spanning many centuries. Race and ethnicity typically refer to long-established groups with a common culture and geographic origin, often sharing a common language and religious tradition. Although the terms are used interchangeably, race tends to be associated with groups whose physical appearance is defined as distinctive, whereas people's ethnicity rests on cultural differences alone. Even this separation of race and ethnicity is abandoned as ethnic groups become racialized—as in the British viewing the Irish as a race apart from themselves or the Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Muslims racializing each other. Later in this introduction, we will consider how these and other terms that sometimes appear to be used with precision are actually quite inconsistent and controversial in their use.
Regardless, race and ethnicity are social constructs that vary across time within any society. At one point, diversity in the United States was cast in biracial, almost caste-like terms as a Black-White issue with American Indians and Asian immigrants virtually ignored. By the end of the 20th century, observers were beginning to talk about the triracial nature of the United States or the Latinization of America, while also noting that dozens of other socially defined groups such as Pacific lslanders and hundreds of tribal groups were ignored or received less attention even though they were a significant part of society (Bonilla-Silva, 2004). Although Belgians seem to represent a distinct unified nationality since Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830, closer inspection reveals a society that represents an uneasy combination of French-speaking Walloons in the south and Dutch-speaking Flemings in the north. In a different fashion, there are religious groups such as the Amish, Hutterites, and Mormons whose distinctiveness justifies their coverage within an encyclopedia committed to covering race and ethnicity.
Race and ethnicity are situated at the intersection of individual social identity and the very structure of society. Who are we as individuals? Who are we as a society? (Winant, 2004). This encyclopedia has been assembled in response to these questions.
How to Use the Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and SocietyThis encyclopedia is arranged with nearly 600 entries in alphabetical order. The individual essays range in length from 500 to 6,000 words (118 entries are more than 2,000 words), accompanied by more than 200 visuals, including photographs, tables, figures, and maps.
The Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society also addresses other issues of inequality that often intersect with the primary focus on race and ethnicity. Therefore, the reader will find relevant coverage in such areas as ability status, age, class, gender, and sexual orientation.
Each entry offers an overview of a particular topic with guides to additional exploration through further readings. Effort has been made to select materials generally available through college libraries and to include potentially useful Web sites.
The broad area of race, ethnicity, and society is highly interconnected. Hence, each entry refers the reader to other potentially useful entries through cross-references (“See Also”) at the end of the text of each entry. Thus, one will find the entry on “Adoption” refers one to “Transracial Adoption,” which in turn refers the reader to “Racial Identity.” These cross-references supplement the alphabetical format for quick ease of location that finds such strange companions as “Lebanese Americans” next to “Lee, Spike,” and “Santería” next to “Scapegoats.”
Another helpful and important feature in the encyclopedia is the Reader's Guide section, which appears in the front matter of each volume immediately after the List of Images. This additional guide to the contents of the three volumes is organized around 18 headings, and each entry in the encyclopedia is listed in at least one of these 18 subject areas. These categories or themes identify well-represented subject areas within the encyclopedia. More significant to readers, the headings provide an additional way to guide further study. So for example, one may want to know more about immigration and therefore first look at entries such as “Immigration and Gender” and “Refugees.” However, by considering the “Immigration and Citizenship” category in the Reader's Guide, users of the encyclopedia may see entries that they had not considered of use to them such as “Americanization,” “Ethnonational Minorities,” and “Remittances.”
Located at the end of Volume 3 are the appendices. Appendix A, “Data on Race and Ethnicity in the United States, 1820 to the Present,” includes historical trends, the most recent data, and projections into the future. Appendix B, “Internet Resources on Race, Ethnicity, and Society,” identifies more than 100 Web sites with a variety of perspectives on the issues contained in this encyclopedia.
The strength of any reference work rests on its authorship. In these three volumes, we have brought together the insights of 376 individuals from more than 230 colleges, institutes, and organizations. To our knowledge, this is the largest number of scholars brought together to write on race and ethnicity—three times the number that produced the classic Harvard Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnicity, published a generation ago (Thernstrom, 1980).
The 376 individual contributors come from fourteen countries—Australia, Canada, Croatia, Great Britain, India, Ireland, Japan, Northern Ireland, Samoa, Singapore, Slovenia, South Africa, Sweden, and the United States, with more than 45 different states represented. Breadth of academic backgrounds is also illustrated by discipline backgrounds of the authors including African American Studies, American Studies, Anthropology, Asian Studies, Communications, Criminal Justice, Gender/Women's Studies, Geography, History, Latina/o Studies, Languages and Linguistics, Law, Media Studies, Native American/American Indian Studies, Political Science, Psychology, Public Policy, Scandinavian Studies, Slavic Studies, Social Work, Sociology, and Speech. In a later section, we will consider the credentials of the scholars we have assembled in greater detail.
The coverage is also broad in its historical perspective, ranging from “Kennewick Man” and the “Emancipation Proclamation” to “Hip-Hop.” Biographical entries have been judiciously chosen for people who are historically important, representative of a particular period or genre, and often, scholarly contributors themselves such as Vine Deloria, Jr., Harry Kitano, and Ida B. Wells-Barnett.
A central part of the encyclopedia is more than 120 entries covering specific ethnic, nationality, tribal, and racial groups in the United States. Each informative essay provides basic information for each group with cross-references to related groups, pertinent concepts, and relevant historical events. The groups included are those that have had the most impact on society. Individual entries on specific groups are supplemented by broader treatments on Africans in the United States, Asian Americans, Caribbean Americans, Central Americans in the United States, Latin Americans in the United States, Native Americans, and Pacific Islanders.
Supplementing this core selection of entries are more than 100 essays looking at race and ethnicity in societies on every continent and from countries ranging from Canada to Zimbabwe as well as including a number of topics viewed from a broader global perspective such as “Colonialism,” “Diaspora,” and “Guest Workers.” Throughout the encyclopedia, but particularly in the nation and nationality entries, efforts have been made to include the latest population data. The 2007 population estimates come from the Population Reference Bureau (PRB) and reflect the current 2007 data from the individual countries, UN estimates, or calculations by PRB demographers (Haub, 2007).
Scholarship: Breadth and ScopeSome encyclopedias are written by a handful of nonexperts who assemble information from already published reference works, but the Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society is the work of some of the most distinguished authorities possible who offer insight on complex topics. We have Craig Calhoun, author of the seminal essay on cosmopolitanism, writing on that topic; Michael Banton, the dean of race relations scholarship in Great Britain, writing on ethnic conflict; Douglas Massey, author of American Apartheid, writing on that concept; former American Sociological Association President Joe Feagin and Jennifer Mueller writing on White racism; Tom W Smith, Director of NORC General Social Survey, writing on surveying intergroup relations; Maulana Karenga, the creator of Kwanzaa, writing on that internationally recognized festival; James Loewen, author of Sundown Towns, writing on that topic; and Molefi Kete Asante, who coined the term Afrocentricity, writing on that concept.
The overall quality of scholarship in this reference work continues to be apparent to those with knowledge in the area of race and ethnicity. Many of the authors of the essays are acknowledged as the authorities. For example, consider entries written by Benigno Aguirre (Hurricane Katrina), Thomas Bouchard (Intelligence Tests), Roberta Coles (Family), Sharon Collins (Black Enterprise), Gary David (Arab Americans), Mary Jo Deegan (Chicago School of Race Relations), John Dovidio (Aversive Racism), Howard Ehrlich (Ethnoviolence), John Farley (Discrimination in Housing), Gary Fine (Robbers Cave Experiment), Douglas Hartmann (Measuring Whiteness), Ted Henken (Immigration and Race), Peter Kivisto (Religion), Donald Kraybill (Amish), Armand Mauss (Mormons and Race), Vincent Parrillo (Italian Americans), Fred Pincus (Reverse Discrimination), James Richardsen (New Religious Movements), Jason Shelton (Malcolm X), Sonia Soltero (Bilingual Education), Gregory Squires (Blockbusting), John Stone (Comparative Perspectives of Race), Jill Watts (Father Divine Peace Mission Movement), David Zarefsky (Abraham Lincoln), and many, many others.
Many of the contributors played the useful editorial role of suggesting important topics to be covered and potential experts whose contribution could be solicited. The editors gratefully acknowledge such assistance.
TerminologyWe have striven to establish a common use of terms to cover the topics in the Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. Given the nature of the field, this is a challenging endeavor. We do acknowledge that words and categories have power and note this throughout this reference work. Ethnic and racial terminology is a complex and sensitive matter that transcends any purely scholarly discussion. We fully recognize the very real social significance it has for all the peoples discussed in this book, not to mention to the individuals who either detest any categorization or resent the many occasions they are misidentified.
For example, in some contexts terms such as “non-White” carry deep emotional scars (South Africa), whereas in some contexts in academic writing in the United States, this term is intended to be a useful, non-pejorative term (for example as in Bonilla-Silva, 2004). To those new to the field, it may seem puzzling and arbitrary that the U.S. Census Bureau's primary ethnic classification is “Hispanic” and “non-Hispanic” and that race includes such ambiguous geographical in origin categories as “Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders” (American Anthropological Association, 1997; Office of Management and Budget, 1997).
Frankly, even to scholars immersed in the field, categorization remains a challenge that is also puzzling and arbitrary. Typically, we use terminology that is most acceptable to members of groups themselves. Having said that, we recognize the utility of such collective terms as Asian Americans and Latinos is typically set aside in favor of more appropriate, specific descriptors, as Taiwanese Americans or Dominicans. Even what may seem as fairly specific social categories such as Italian Americans are too broad for those who self-identify as Sicilian or Genoan.
Native Americans and American Indians are used interchangeably. A 1995 national survey commissioned by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and the Census Bureau found that both the terms enjoyed relative popularity among tribal people (49% endorsed American Indian and 37% expressed preference for Native American). However overwhelming such broad umbrella terms, the individual preference, used in this encyclopedia wherever possible, is to use more specific tribal identities such as Hopi or Ojibwa (Tucker, Kojetin, and Harrison, 1996).
Similarly, Hispanic and Latino are used interchangeably in the Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society; some have argued there are different meanings for each, but there is no consensus about what those distinctions may be. As with American Indians, greater clarity comes from using more specific identifiers than from a broad, collective term such as Hispanic or Latino. Therefore, inspection of our list of entries will find sixteen separate groups from Brazilian Americans to Salvadoran Americans encompassed by the collective social category of Latinos or Hispanic Americans, although neither term is used as a self-descriptive term by the people in their home countries in Latin America or the Caribbean (Rodriguez, 2000).
Another aspect of terminology is the use of minority and majority. The use of minority is generally accepted in academic writings to describe all those groups who see themselves as distinct from the economically and politically dominant group, the majority, in terms of cultural or ethnic identity and is not intended to reflect some devaluation by outsiders. A group may also be identified as a minority even though it is in the numerical majority, as in the case of describing Black Africans in their own country during the apartheid era.
In the not-too-distant past, the term mixed-race was used only in the most disparaging way by the “chosen race” to cleanse itself of those people who were of mixed descent, however defined. This has changed in many societies including the United States, where people are being encouraged to not think in terms of old, rigid compartments. The census completed in 2000 was the first in the United States to allow for multiple categories; however, one could not self-classify as “biracial” or “multiracial” or “multiethnic.” Consequently, a significant number of entries confront the very real, and sometimes personal, issue of identity (Jones and Smith, 2001).
In a similar trend to the recognition of mixed backgrounds, many individuals and scholars embrace efforts to bring separate groups together in shared endeavors. Hence, we look in detail at panethnic movements ranging from La Raza to Pan-Indian and Pan-Asian movements.
Although the preceding discussion concerning terminology has focused on the United States, similar concerns about nomenclature of racial and ethnic groups are repeated throughout the world. In a study undertaken by the UN's Statistical Division, 63 percent of 141 national censuses incorporate some form of racial, ethnic, or nationality enumeration. It is very challenging to identify common categories except through the broadest classification systems. Consider the variety of ways that “indigenous,” “native,” or “aboriginal” are employed around the world. Yet another variation in terminology is how nations may officially cluster groups treated as distinctly different in other countries. For example, some nations group ethnic with dialect groups (Singapore), whereas other nations combine caste with ethnicity (Nepal). The reader is referred to the UN Statistical Division (2003) and Ann Morning's (2008) valuable synthesis for further insights into the complexity of terminology worldwide.
Suffice it to conclude, like the authors represented in this encyclopedia, that one should exercise care in use of racial and ethnic terminologies and acknowledge as best as one can different interpretations. Finally, special caution must be used when exploring race and ethnicity in societies that are new to the investigator.
Maps and PhotographsMore than 90 maps specially designed in the three volumes assist the reader in getting a sense of place either of the source of nationalities or distributions of members of particular ethnic or racial groups. These illustrations offer the most accurate, recent impressions possible. Reflecting ongoing political disputes, however, boundaries are often a contentious issue. Although only small parcels of land were involved relatively speaking, Mexico and the United States did not finally fix their shared border until a 1970 treaty that became effective in 1977. Other borders such as India-Pakistan remain very much in dispute, and even the autonomous existence of such states as Taiwan and Tibet are in dispute. With all this in mind, one should view maps with their intended purpose—general location and key features—rather than as the final word in geopolitical disputes.
Pictures speak volumes and, therefore, special care has been taken to select images to highlight topics. Rather than selecting a simple headshot of Malcolm X, for example, we undertook research to show him dining in a Harlem restaurant patronized by the Nation of Islam. Concepts that may not always be familiar to the reader are also illustrated with photographs accompanying the entries on the deficit model of ethnicity and ethnic enclave. For example, a photograph that shows Sioux tribal members staking claim to the abandoned Alcatraz Prison Island in 1969 accompanies the entry on the concept of “Red Power.” The captions themselves reflect the writing of the General Editor with assistance from entry contributors.
AcknowledgmentsThe development of a work of a million words is truly a collaborative effort. I am particularly grateful to my editorial team. Shu-Ju Ada Cheng in her role as Associate Editor shared responsibility for developing the list of entries and identifying potential contributors. In addition, she authored seven entries herself. Assistant Editor Kiljoong Kim also identified many of the contributors and provided advice on statistical and data-collection matters. He authored (or coauthored) five entries. The noteworthy credentials of my two colleagues are detailed elsewhere.
Sage Publications continues to provide the academic community immeasurable reference and scholarly materials. I am most pleased that this encyclopedia is a part of this invaluable program. Publisher Rolf Janke has taken a valued personal interest in this project from the very beginning. Diana Axelsen has been the driving force on a daily basis (including many weekends) behind these three volumes. Her official title of “Developmental Editor” does not adequately describe her many roles. Kate Schroeder, with the assistance of Carla Freeman, Robin Gold, and D. J. Peck, has transformed a collaborative writing project into a unified whole. Leticia Gutierrez oversaw the Web-based system that managed the drafts and queries to the hundreds of scholarly participants. Finally, among all the individuals at Sage, I close by acknowledging Jerry Westby, who knows the field and was very receptive to my proposal that a part of the Sage bookshelf should be this encyclopedia.
The resources of my home campus at DePaul University have been extremely important. Managing Editor Monique Billings has played an important support function to the editors. Reference Librarian Paula Dempsey has been invaluable in tracking down esoteric bibliographic entries. The Department of Sociology Program Assistant Valerie Paulson and student workers Jan Gorospe, Meaghan Kawaller, Rachel Hanes, Suzanne Hammond, and Lidia Yip assisted with manuscript preparation and production.
The scholarly content rests with the several hundred authors, but others helped in a broader fashion. Jean H. Shin, in his role as Director of the Minority Affairs Program at the American Sociological Association (ASA), assisted me in contacting minority scholars to solicit their participation as authors. Similarly, I reached contributors through the Section on Racial and Ethnic Minorities of the American Sociological Association.
In closing, we note that common elements in the definition of an encyclopedia are “authoritative” and “scholarship.” We would like to close by again acknowledging the work of the individual scholars who have combined to produce this single reference source covering race and ethnicity in society.
ReferencesAmerican Anthropological Association. 1997. “Response to OMB Directive 15; Race and Ethnic Standards for Federal Statistics and Administrative Reporting.” September. Retrieved February 27, 2006, from http://www.aaanet.org/gvt/ombdraft.htm. “From Bi-racial to Tri-racial: Towards a New System of Racial Stratification in the USA.”Ethnic and Racial Studies27 (November) 2004. 931–950.http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0141987042000268530. 2007. 2007 World Population Data Sheet. Washington DC: Population Reference Bureau., and . 2001. The Two or More Races Population: 2000. Series C2KBR/01-6. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.. 2008. “Ethnic Classification in Global Perspective: A Cross-National Survey of the 2000 Census Round.”Population Research and Policy Review. Forthcoming. Retrieved from http://sociology.as.nyu.edu/object/annmorning.htmlOffice of Management and Budget. 1997. “Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity.” Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/ombdir15.html2000. Changing Race: Latinos, the Census, and the History of Ethnicity in the United States. New York: New York University Press.Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. 1980. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press., , and . 1996. A Statistical Analysis of the CPS Supplement on Race and Ethnic Origin. Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics and Census Bureau. Available from http://www.census.gov/prod/2/gen/96arc/ivatuck.pdfUnited Nations Statistical Division. 2003. “Ethnicity: A Review of Data Collection and Dissemination.” Unpublished document, Demographic and Social Statistics Branch, United Nations Statistical Division. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sconcerns/popchar/Ethnicitypaper.pdf. 2004. The New Politics of Race: Globalism, Difference, Justice. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. -
Appendix A: Data on Race and Ethnicity in the United States, 1820 to the Present
Introduction to Appendix AThe fourteen tables in this Appendix offer insight into the patterns of race and ethnicity, stretching back to 1820 with population projections into 2050. Even a casual examination of these data will confirm the dynamic nature of race and ethnicity in the United States in a period covering 230 years.
Immigrants, Refugees, and NaturalizationsThe first six tables summarize data from the Office of Immigration Statistics of the Department of Homeland Security. Historical data are presented from 1820 by decade and for recent years annually of the number of people who are granted legal permanent resident status. This would consist of what most people consider to be immigrants—people who enter the country legally who intend to remain here and are not tourists, foreign students, or diplomats. This group of legal permanent residents would include those known as green card recipients. Once here, foreign students and refugees can apply to legal permanent resident status, and if it is granted, they then become immigrants.
Tables 1 and 2 may seem similar, but there is an important distinction between them. One identifies groups by virtue of “last residence” while the other gives “country of birth.” Many immigrants granted entry to the United States enter from residence in a country other than that of their birth. For example, Table 1 shows 83,628 immigrants with a last residence of China in 2006, and 4,514 from Hong Kong. Yet in Table 2 we see that 87,345 immigrants were born in China that same year while only 3,216 were actually born in Hong Kong.
Data on refugees (Tables 3 and 4) account for persons granted entry in order to avoid persecution in their country of origin, and they have applied for admission while still living outside the United States. Besides actual persecution, refugee status may be granted based on a well-founded fear of persecution because of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Refugees may typically bring spouses and children with them. The first official refugees were granted entry in 1948 in the aftermath of World War II and the domination of Eastern Europe by the Soviet Union.
Naturalization data (Tables 5 and 6) refer to person's age 18 and older who become citizens of the United States. The naturalization process has changed over the generations, but recently legal permanent residents have been permitted to apply for citizenship status after five years in the country (although they are not required to do so). Typically, spouses of U.S. citizens may apply after 3 years. Foreign-born children automatically (that is, without applying) become citizens if one parent is a citizen or becomes one while they are still under 18 years of age. On July 30, 2007, the citizenship application fee was raised to $675. In 2006, 702,589 people were naturalized and therefore became eligible to vote and to apply for U.S. passports.
For all these tables relating to nation of origin or birth, the changing political boundaries and names of countries requires special caution as one examines data from further back in history.
The American Community SurveyA contemporary picture of U.S. racial and ethnic diversity can be found in our analysis of data from the American Community Survey (ACS). The 2006 ACS data are based on a U.S. Census sample of 3 million housing-unit addresses, collected from all 3,141 U.S. counties, American Indian and Alaska Native areas, and Native Hawaiian areas. These data were released August 27, 2007, and include profiles of many racial and ethnic groups, such as African Americans, Chinese Americans, and Mexican Americans. In addition, profiles for 72 ancestry groups, from Afghani to Welsh, are also available.
The first data set taken from the ACS (Table 7) shows the major racial and ethnic groups for the United States as a whole as well as for the 24 largest metropolitan areas, ranked from largest to smallest. We have added one additional metropolitan area, Honolulu, ranked as number 53, because of its distinctive pattern of diversity compared to the rest of the nation.
Ranking tables from the ACS (Tables 8–12) provide an overview of data at the state level for the proportions of foreign-born, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian American, African American, or White non-Hispanic people in the 2006 U.S. population. Since the data are based on a sample, we show margins of error. These estimates offer a margin of error, that is, points at the upper and lower bounds of the confidence interval as “wings” or “arms” extending to either side of the estimated proportion or percentage. Typically, the span of this margin of error is less than 1 percent. So, for example, in Table 8, we see that California has 27.2 percent foreign-born population with a margin of error of +/-0.1 percent. This means that, if we surveyed all California residents instead of a sample of the population, the actual percent of foreign-born residents would most likely be between 27.1 and 27.3 percent.
ProjectionsTables 13 and 14 use assumptions about the components of population change (fertility, mortality, and international migration) to project the population by race and ethnic status from the revised Census 2000 population of 282.1 million forward to 2010, 2020, 2030, 2040, and 2050. To formulate these projections, the U.S. Census Bureau makes assumptions about levels of in-migration (both legal immigration and unauthorized in-migration) of the foreign born to the United States and about rates of emigration from the United States.
While there are always reporting errors and assumptions in official data relating to nationality, race, and ethnicity, the U.S. Census data are unique in providing a picture that is so historically rich and detailed.
Appendix B: Internet Resources on Race, Ethnicity, and Society
The following is a sample of the thousands of Web sites that offer information on race, ethnicity, and society. They have been grouped by broad areas as most sites touch on a number of areas and subjects. While some of the sites that are noted in individual encyclopedia entries have also been listed here, many more with broad coverage have been added. The Web sites selected have stable URLs and are in English (or are multilingual, including English). Most of these Web sites, in turn, have links to other useful information.
- http://allrelated.syr.eduAll of Us Are Related, Each of Us Is Unique (Syracuse University)
- http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.orgDeath Penalty Information Center
- http://news.newamericamedia.org/newsEthnic Media: New America Media
- http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/ucr.htm#hateFBI Uniform Crime Reports, Data on Hate Crimes
- http://www.adl.org/99hatecrime/intro.aspHate Crimes Laws (Anti-Defamation League)
- http://www.hhs.gov/disasters/emergency/naturaldisasters/hurricanes/katrina/index.htmlHurricane Katrina: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
- http://www.lirs.orgLutheran Immigration and Refugee Service
- http://www.aamc.org/students/minoritiesMinorities in Medicine (Association of American Medical Colleges)
- http://www.prejudiceinstitute.orgThe Prejudice Institute
- http://www.racetraitor.orgRace Traitor: Journal of the New Abolitionism: Constructing Whiteness
- http://ww.splcenter.org and http://www.tolerance.orgSouthern Poverty Law Center: Tolerance Education
- http://www.census.gov or http://www.census.gov/pubinfo/www/hotlinks.htmlU.S. Census Bureau
- http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Search.htmU.S. Census Bureau, Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity (Office of Management and Budget) (search for “Revisions and Standards”
- http://www.uscis.govU.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
- http://www.usccr.govU.S. Commission on Civil Rights
- http://www.utexas.edu/lbj/uscirU.S. Commission on Immigration Reform (University of Texas at Austin)
- http://www.refugeesusa.orgU.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants
- http://www.eeoc.govU.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
General- http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/nmah/afroam.htmAfrican American History and Culture (The Smithsonian)
- http://www.archives.gov/genealogy/heritage/african-americanAfrican American Heritage Resources (National Archives)
- http://www.black-collegian.comThe Black Collegian Online
- http://www.melanet.com/kwanzaa/whatisKwanzaa Information Center
- http://www.melanet.comMelaNET (The UnCut Black Experience)
- http://www.officialkwanzaawebsite.orgThe Official Kwanzaa Web Site
- http://www.rainbowpush.orgRainbow/PUSH Coalition
- http://www.sclcnational.orgSouthern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
African Americans- http://www.asianamerican.netAsian American Net
- http://www.library.yale.edu/rsc/asian-americanAsian American Studies, Yale University Guide to
- http://www.nea.org/mco/asians.htmlAsians/Pacific Islanders Minority Community Outreach (National Education Association)
- http://www.archives.gov/genealogy/heritage/chinese-immigration.htmlChinese Immigration Records (National Archives)
- http://www.densho.orgDensho: The Japanese American Legacy Project
- http://www.hawaii-nation.orgHawai'i-Independent and Sovereign
- http://wwwinternmentarchives.comInternment Archives
- http://www.jacl.orgJapanese American Citizens League
- http://www.janm.orgJapanese American National Museum
- http://www.archives.gov/genealogy/heritage/Japanese-americans.htmlJapanese American Records (National Archives)
- http://www.littleindia.comLittle India (online magazine)
- http://www.littlesaigon.comLittle Saigon Net: Vietnam Today
- http://www.njahs.orgNational Japanese American Historical Society
- http://www.njamf.comNational Japanese American Memorial Foundation
- http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov2001/ofcivilwrongsandrights“Of Civil Wrongs and Rights: The Fred Korematsu Story” (film by Eric Paul Fornier)
- http://www.searac.orgSoutheast Asia Resource Action Center
- http://www.census.gov/pubinfo/www/NEWapiML1.htmlU.S. Census Bureau: Facts on the Asian Population
- http://www.stolaf.edu/people/cdr/hmongWWW Hmong Home Page
Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders- http://www.afrocubaweb.comAfroCuba Web: Afro-Cubans, Cuba, and the Caribbean
- http://www.archives.gov/genealogy/heritage/hispanic-americans.htmlHispanic American Records (National Archives)
- http://www.dur.ac.uk/ibruInternational Boundaries Research Unit (Durham University)
- http://www.jsri.msu.eduJulian Samora Research Institute (Michigan State University)
- http://www.lanic.utexas.eduLatin American National Information Center (University of Texas at Austin)
- http://www.masrc.arizona.eduMexican American Studies and Research Center (University of Arizona)
- http://www.mmp.opr.princeton.eduMexican Migration Project (Princeton University)
- http://www.nclr.orgNational Council of La Raza
- http://www.ru.nl/ncbrNijmegen Centre for Border Research (Radboud University)
- http://www.pewhispanic.orgPew Hispanic Center
- http://www.prdream.comPuerto Rico and the American Dream
- http://www.prldef.orgPuerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund
- http://www.utexas.edu/lbj/uscir/binational.htmlU.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, Mexico-U.S. Binational Migration Study Report (University of Texas at Austin)
Hispanics and Latinos- http://www.ajc.orgAmerican Jewish Committee
- http://www.adl.orgAnti-Defamation League
- http://www.hias.orgHebrew Immigrant Aid Society
- http://www.archives.gov/genealogy/heritage/jewish-american.htmlJewish American History Research (National Archives)
- http://www.myjewishlearning.comMy Jewish Learning
- http://www.shamash.orgShamash: The Jewish Network
Jews and Judaism- http://www.adc.orgAmerican-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee
- http://www.ampolitics.ghazali.netAmerican Muslim Perspective (online magazine)
- http://www.aaiusa.orgArab American Institute
- http://www.msanational.orgMuslim Students' Association-National
Muslim and Arab Americans- http://www.aihecvl.orgAmerican Indian Higher Education Consortium Virtual Library
- http://www.doi.gov/bureau-indian-affairs.htmlBureau of Indian Affairs
- http://www.ncai.orgNational Congress of American Indians
- http://www.niyc-alb.orgNational Indian Youth Council, Inc.
- http://www.archives.gov/genealogy/heritage/native-american/index.htmlNative American Records (National Archives)
- http://www.nmai.si.eduNational Museum of the American Indian (The Smithsonian)
- http://www.nativeweb.orgWorld Indigenous Cultures: Native Web
Native Americans- http://www.anc.org.zaAfrican National Congress (South Africa)
- http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/sociology/popstudies/dp.htmlPopulation Studies Centre (University of Western Ontario)
- http://www.censusindia.gov.inCensus of India
- http://www.uh.edu/cirCenter for Immigration Research (University of Houston)
- http://www.cis.org/articlesCenter for Immigration Studies (Washington, DC)
- http://www.cmsny.orgCenter for Migration Studies (Staten Island, New York)
- http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/crerCentre for Research in Ethnic Relations (University of Warwick)
- https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbookCIA World Factbook (general information on countries)
- http://www.uu.nl/uupublish/onderzoek/onderzoekcentra/ercomer/24638main.htmlEuropean Research Centre on Migration and Ethnic Relations (Utrecht University)
- http://www.ihrc.umn.eduImmigration History Research Center (University of Minnesota)
- http://abyayala.nativeweb.orgIndigenous Peoples in Mexico, Central and South America: Abya Yala Net
- http://www2.fmg.uva.nl/imesInstitute for Migration and Ethnic Studies (University of Amsterdam)
- http://www.iom.int/jahia/jsp/index.jspInternational Organization for Migration (Geneva, Switzerland)
- http://www.theirc.orgInternational Rescue Committee (New York)
- http://web.mit.edu/cis/www/migrationThe Inter-University Committee on International Migration (MIT et al.)
- http://www.migrationpolicy.orgMigration Policy Institute (MPI) (Washington, D.C.)
- http://www.migration-research.orgMigration Research Group (University of Hamburg)
- http://www.geog.ucl.ac.uk/mruThe Migration Research Unit (University College, London)
- http://www.peacepeople.comThe Peace People (Northern Ireland)
- http://web.worldbank.orgWorld Bank Data (for specific statistical information, click on “Data and Research”)
- http://www.wr.orgWorld Relief
Global, Including outside the United States- http://www.aoa.dhhs.govThe U.S. Administration on Aging
- http://www.ampolinstitute.org.ic.plThe American Institute of Polish Culture, Inc.
- http://www.aihs.orgThe American Irish Historical Society
- http://www.ataa.orgAssembly of Turkish American Associations
- http://www.cath4choice.orgCatholics for a Free Choice
- http://www.disabilityhistory.orgDisability Social History Project
- http://www.ellisisland.comEllis Island Immigration Museum
- http://history.wisc.edu/archdeacon/404tjaEthnicity in 20th-Century America (Thomas J. Archdeacon, University of Wisconsin-Madison)
- http://www.hrweb.orgHuman Rights Web
- http://www.webcom.com/~intvoiceInterracial Voice
- http://www.stolaf.edu/nahaThe Norwegian American Historical Association
- http://www.polish.orgPolish American Association
- http://www.yahoo.com/Society_and_Culture/DisabilitiesSociety and Culture: Disabilities (Yahoo)
- http://www.sofn.comSons of Norway
- http://www.samac.orgSwedish-American Museum Center
- http://www.vesterheim.orgVesterheim Norwegian American Museum
- http://www.germany-info.orgWelcome to Germany (German Embassy, Washington, D.C.)
Ethnic Groups and Other Subordinate GroupsFor further information, contact the General Editor, Richard T. Schaefer, by email at: schaeferrt@aol.com.
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